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• Grades 6-12
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15 Creative Ways to Teach About States of Matter

Make root beer floats in the name of science!

Understanding the various states of matter is one of the key concepts kids need for exploring chemistry and physics. These states of matter activities help them learn the physical changes that take place as matter converts from solid to liquid to gas. They’ll enjoy the hands-on aspects as they get to see science in action!

1. Start with an anchor chart

An anchor chart like this gives students something to reference as they learn the concepts and complete states of matter activities.

Learn more: Terra Palmer/Pinterest

2. Read books about the states of matter

Read a book or two to introduce younger learners to the concepts of solids, liquids, and gases. Here are a few of our favorites to try.

• What Is The World Made Of? (Weidner Zoehfeld/Meisel)
• What’s the Matter in Mr. Whisker’s Room? (Elsohn Ross/Meisel)
• Matter: Physical Science for Kids (Diehn/Li)
• Bartholomew and the Oobleck (Seuss)

3. Sort and match states of matter

Grab the free printable cards at the link, or cut pictures out of magazines. Then have kids sort them by states of matter.

Learn more: Gift of Curiosity/Sort and Match States of Matter

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4. Discover the states of matter with water

All you need is water for one of the easiest states of matter activities. Start with ice cubes, melt them down to water, then bring them to boiling to watch steam form.

Learn more: Gift of Curiosity/States of Matter using Water

5. Color and learn about states of matter

Kids who love to color will enjoy these free printable worksheets. As they color in the pictures, talk about the differences between the states of matter.

Learn more: This Reading Mama

6. Use cereal to represent atoms

Use Cheerios (or M&Ms, or raisins… you get the idea) to diagram the action of atoms in the various states of matter. Snack on the “atoms” when you’re done!

Learn more: Mrs. Thompsons’s Treasures

7. Drink root beer floats

Speaking of delicious science, root beer floats are one of our favorite states of matter activities! We guarantee this one will be a hit.

Learn more: Learning Lab Resources

8. Churn ice cream in a bag

If you’re really feeling ambitious, make your own ice cream for the floats! It’s a fun way to explore the change from liquid to solid too.

Learn more: Around the Kampfire

9. Harvest water from fog

Simulate fog by spraying water from a bottle. Use a piece of nylon stocking to catch the fog and turn it back into water.

Learn more: Science Buddies/Fog Catcher

10. Explore liquids and solids with crayons

This experiment explores the change from solid to liquid and back again using heat. And at the end, kids have “new” crayons to color with!

Learn more: Life Over Cs

11. Make a cup of hot chocolate

Ready for another edible experiment? Hot chocolate is a cool way to explore the states of matter. (Don’t forget the solids: marshmallows!)

Learn more: Cool Progeny

12. Try cotton swab painting

Use cotton swabs dipped in paint to make illustrations of how atoms move in solids, liquids, and gases.

Learn more: Inspire Me ASAP

13. Make a batch of butter

This experiment not only explores solids and liquids, but also the process known as emulsion . You get double the science, and a yummy treat!

Learn more: Playdough to Plato

14. Fill balloons with solids, liquids, and gases

Fill balloons with water (liquid and frozen) and air, then talk about the properties of each. This is a good way to prove that gas is there, even though you can’t always see it.

Learn more: Fit Kids Clubhouse

15. Explore the properties of Oobleck

Just when kids think they understand the states of matter, along comes a non-Newtonion fluid like oobleck to confuse matters! This is one science demo that never fails to amaze.

Learn more: Science Buddies/Oobleck

Like these state of matter activities? Try these 28 Edible Science Experiments You’ll Actually Want To Eat .

Plus, 50 Easy Science Experiments Kids Can Do At Home .

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Baking Soda and Vinegar Balloon Experiment (Plus Free Worksheet)

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May 2, 2011

It's a Solid... It's a Liquid... It's Oobleck!

Bring Science Home: Activity 1

By Katherine Harmon

Getty Images

Key concepts Liquids and solids Viscosity Pressure From National Science Education Standards : Properties of objects and materials

Introduction Why is it so hard to get out of quicksand? Is it a solid? Is it a liquid? Can it be both? In this activity, you will make a substance that is similar to quicksand—but much more fun. Play around with it and find out how it acts differently from a normal liquid and a normal solid. Other, more familiar substances change states (from solids to liquids to gases) when we change the temperature, such as freezing water into ice or boiling it away into steam. But this simple mixture shows how changes in pressure, instead of temperature, can change the properties of some materials. Background Applying pressure to the mixture increases its viscosity (thickness). A quick tap on the surface of Oobleck will make it feel hard, because it forces the cornstarch particles together. But dip your hand slowly into the mix, and see what happens—your fingers slide in as easily as through water. Moving slowly gives the cornstarch particles time to move out of the way. Oobleck and other pressure-dependent substances (such as Silly Putty and quicksand) are not liquids such as water or oil. They are known as non-Newtonian fluids. This substance's funny name comes from a Dr. Seuss book called Bartholomew and the Oobleck .

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Materials •    1 cup of water •    1 to 2 cups of cornstarch •    Mixing bowl •    Food coloring (optional) Preparation •    Pour one cup of cornstarch into the mixing bowl, and dip your hands into it. Can you feel how smooth the powder is? It's made up of super-fine particles. •    Now pour the water in, mixing slowly as you go. Keep adding more water until the mixture becomes thick (and hardens when you tap on it). Add more cornstarch if it gets too runny, and more water if it becomes too thick. •    Add a few drops of food coloring if desired. (If you want to turn your Oobleck another hue, it’s easier to add the coloring to the water before you mix it with the cornstarch.) •    Oobleck is non-toxic, but please use caution when doing any science activity. Be careful not to get it in your eyes, and wash your hands after handling the Oobleck. Procedure •    Roll up your sleeves and prepare to get messy! Drop your hands quickly into the Oobleck, then slowly lower your hands into it. Notice the difference! •    Hold a handful in your open palm— what happens? •    Try squeezing it in your fist or rolling it between your hands— how does it behave differently? •    Move your fingers through the mixture slowly, then try moving them faster. •    What else can you do to test the mixture's properties? •    Extra: If you have a large plastic bin or tub, you can make a big batch of Oobleck. Multiply the quantity of each ingredient by 10 or more and mix it up. Take off your shoes and socks and try standing in the Oobleck! Can you walk across it without sinking in? Let you feet sink down and then try wiggling your toes. What happens?

Read on for observations, results and more resources.

Observations and results What is happening when you squeeze the Oobleck? What is happening when you release the pressure? Does the Oobleck remind you of anything else? The Oobleck mixture isn't your typical liquid—or solid. The cornstarch-and-water mixture creates a fluid that acts more like quicksand than water: applying force (squeezing or tapping it) causes it to become thicker. If you were trapped in a tub of Oobleck, what would be the best way to escape? Share your Oobleck observations and results! Leave a comment below or share your photos and feedback on Scientific American 's Facebook page . Cleanup Wash hands with water. Add plenty of extra water to the mixture before pouring it down the drain. Wipe up any dried cornstarch with a dry cloth before cleaning up any remaining residue with a damp sponge. More to explore " What is Jell-O? " from Scientific American " Ask the Experts: What Is Quicksand? " from Scientific American " States of Matter " overview from Idaho Public Television's Dialogue for Kids Slime and Goo activities from the American Chemical Society's Science for Kids Oobleck, Slime & Dancing Spaghetti: Twenty terrific at-home science experiments inspired by favorite children's books by Jennifer Williams, ages 4–8 The Everything Kids' Easy Science Experiments Book: Explore the world of science through quick and easy experiments! By J. Elizabeth Mills, ages 9–12 Up next… The Magic of Gravity What you'll need •    Coin •    Bottle, jar or canister with a small top opening (larger—but not too much bigger—than the coin) •    3- by-5-inch note card or other sturdy piece of paper •    Scissors •    Tape •    Pen or pencil •    Water (optional)

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Science Projects for Kids: States of Matter

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Trying to comprehend the science of matter may seem complicated, but Science Projects for Kids: States of Matter makes understanding it easy and interesting. Explore transitions between solid and liquid by making ice pops and rock candy.

See what happens to soda pop gas in a balloon, and make a cloud in a bottle. Learn about the concept of surface tension by blowing soap bubbles, stretching the surface of water, and cutting and connecting water drops.

You'll be surprised at how much you can learn about states of matter with these simple experiments. Gather a few materials from around the house, round up the kids, and have some science fun.

Follow the links below to get started with science projects for kids that explain the states of matter:

Solid to Liquid to Solid

One of the easiest ways to understand how states of matter change is to make yummy ice pops.

Sugar Crystals on a String

Enjoy the sweet rewards of this evaporation test.

Homemade Water Purifier

Create a very simple water purification system.

Soda Pop in a Balloon

Before drinking that soda, see what happens when the gas leaves the bottle.

Cloud in a Bottle

Create your very own piece of the sky with this project.

Soap Bubble Shapes

Have fun blowing bubbles while learning about surface tension.

Water Surface Stretch

See how far you can stretch the surface of water.

Cut and Connect Water Drops

Try your luck at splicing and reconnecting water.

Go to the next page to explore changes in states of matter -- and make something good to eat.

For more fun science projects for kids, check out:

• Science Projects for Kids: The Incredible Universe
• Science Projects for Kids: Density and Volume
• Science Projects for Kids: Current Electricity

Stretch the Surface of Water

Watch the transition from solid to liquid to solid in this science project for kids on states of matter -- and make something good to eat. Solids can change into liquids, and liquids can change into solids. Make ice pops with orange juice, and you can see both transformations.

What You'll Need:

• Can of frozen orange juice
• Large spoon
• Wooden craft sticks

Step 1: Open a can of frozen orange juice, and spoon it into a large pitcher. Touch the frozen juice to feel that it is both solid and cold.

Step 2: Add water according to the package directions to make orange juice.

Step 3: Fill several paper cups about 2/3 of the way with orange juice.

Step 4: Put a craft stick into the liquid in each paper cup.

Step 5: Being careful not to spill, put the cups of juice into the freezer.

Step 6: Check them after two hours. Can you gently pull out the craft stick, or has the liquid orange juice frozen solid around the stick?

Step 7: Once the orange juice has frozen, peel off the paper cups. You and your friends can enjoy a frozen treat!

See the next page to learn how to conduct a science experiment that always has sweet results.

Sugar crystals on a string can be fun to watch grow and delicious to eat. When liquids evaporate into gases, they can leave material behind. That material can be very tasty, as shown by this science project for kids on states of matter. But note that this project requires adult supervision!

• Measuring spoon

Step 1: Bring a small pan of water to a boil on the stove, and turn off the heat.

Step 2: Add one tablespoon of sugar, and stir until it dissolves.

Step 3: Continue adding sugar, one tablespoon at a time, letting each tablespoonful dissolve completely before adding the next. When no more sugar will dissolve in the water, allow the saturated solution to cool.

Step 4: Tie a string to the middle of a pencil, and set the pencil across the rim of a glass. Cut the string so that it just touches the bottom of the glass. Tie a button onto the bottom of the string.

Step 5: Pour the cooled sugar water into the glass. Rest the pencil across the rim of the glass so that the string and button are in the solution.

Step 6: Allow the glass to sit in a warm place without being disturbed for several days so that the water evaporates. As the water evaporates, it will leave sugar crystals on the string. You've just made rock candy.

Go to the next page to learn how you can make a simple water purification system.

Try this homemade water purifier to see how suspended matter can be filtered from water. You may be surprised by how this science project for kids on states of matter works.

• Eight-inch-tall cardboard box

Step 1: Set an eight-inch-tall cardboard box on a table. Set a bowl of clean water on top of the box.

Step 2: Gently drop a small handful of dirt into the water. Much of the dirt will remain suspended in the water, and the water in the bowl will be discolored.

Step 3: Set an empty bowl on the table right next to the cardboard box.

Step 4: Twist together several one-foot strands of wool yarn to make a rope.

Step 5: Put one end of this rope, or wick, into the bottom of the bowl of dirty water. Place the other end of the wick in the empty bowl. After a while, drops of clear water will drip off of the free end of the wick into the empty bowl.

What Happened?

The material in your rope absorbs water and draws it from the bowl. It leaves the dirt behind, however, so the water that drips into the second bowl is clean.

What happens when the gas in soda pop escapes into a balloon? See the next page to find out.

Gases can dissolve in a liquid, as this example of soda pop in a balloon shows. But they won't stay there if you release the pressure that holds them. Try this science project for kids on states of matter, and see what happens.

• Bottle of soda pop

Step 1: Open a bottle of soda pop, and set it on a table.

Step 2: Immediately slip the end of a balloon over the neck of the bottle. Pull the balloon's end well down over the bottle so that it fits tightly.

Step 3: Check on the balloon about every 10 minutes for any changes.

Soda pop is carbonated. This means that carbon dioxide gas has been dissolved in the liquid under high pressure.

Opening the bottle releases the pressure, and the carbon dioxide gas begins to escape from the liquid. The balloon trapped the carbon dioxide gas as it left the bottle, and then the gas inflated the balloon.

Tired of the weather outside? Go to the next page, and learn how you can make a little weather of your own.

Make a little weather of your own with a cloud in a bottle. Clouds form when warm, particle-rich air meets cool, moist air. This science project for kids on states of matter can help you understand just how the process works.

• Clear glass two-liter bottle

Step 1: On a cool day with little or no wind, head for your backyard and find a table.

Step 2: Have a child light a candle, with help from an adult.

Step 3: Turn the two-liter glass bottle upside down, and hold the candle inside the mouth of the jar for about 10 seconds. Don't use a plastic jar. The mouth of a plastic jug could melt.

Step 4: Once the bottle's mouth has cooled a little, form a seal around the bottle with your mouth and blow. Once you pull your mouth away, you should see a cloud form inside the bottle -- just like in the skies above your home.

Learn about surface tension on the next page, and have fun blowing bubbles of different shapes and sizes.

Who knew something as fun and as simple as blowing soap bubble shapes could also be an easy science project for kids on states of matter? See what shapes and sizes of bubbles your kids can blow while they learn about surface tension.

• Dish-washing liquid
• Measuring cup and spoon
• Large container
• Pipe cleaners
• Plastic soda pop ring
• Wooden sticks

Step 1: Add 1/2 cup of dish-washing liquid and two teaspoons of glycerin to 1/2 gallon of water in a large container.

Step 2: Mix the materials together, and let them sit overnight.

Step 3: The next day, pour the mixture into a plastic dishpan outdoors.

Step 4: Shape pipe cleaners into circles of different sizes.

Step 5: Cut a circle of plastic from a soda pop ring, and staple it to a wooden stick.

Step 6: Dip these devices into the bubble solution, and gently blow through the circles to make bubbles. Circles of different sizes will make bubbles of different sizes.

Can you stretch the surface of water? Go to the next page for instructions, and give it a try!

It may be hard to believe, but you can stretch the surface of water. See just how far you can stretch it in this science project for kids on states of matter.

• Small plastic cup

Step 1: Fill a small plastic cup all the way to the top with water.

Step 2: Hold an eyedropper filled with water close to the surface of the water in the plastic cup, and gently release the water drop by drop.

How many drops can you add to the plastic cup after it is "full"? Can you see that the water level actually rises above the top of the cup? Water molecules attract one another strongly so that the water holds together.

Water drops are more elastic than you think. Go to the next page to find out how you can splice and reconnect them.

Try to cut and connect water drops in this science project for kids on states of matter. You can split a water drop into smaller drops, and you can put small water drops together. Give it a try, and you'll learn more about the surface tension of liquids.

• Waxed paper
• Drinking straw

Step 1: Put a drop of food color into a glass of water; stir until all of the water is evenly colored.

Step 2: Using an eyedropper, gently put several drops of the colored water onto a sheet of waxed paper. Look at the circular shape of the drops.

Step 3: With a toothpick, try to cut a water drop in half. Can you do it?

Step 4: With a drinking straw, blow gently to try to put two water drops together. Can you do it?

The surface tension of water pulls the water molecules in a drop toward each other. The molecules in the outer layer are drawn in toward the center of the drop, giving the drop its round shape. The surface tension that holds the water in that shape affected how the water acted when you exerted force on it with the toothpick and the straw.

ABOUT THE DESIGNERS

Cloud in a Bottle by Maria Birmingham, Karen E. Bledsoe, and Kelly Milner Halls

States of Matter FAQ

What are the different states of matter, what is an easy state of matter experiment for fifth grade students, what phase change takes the most energy.

Please copy/paste the following text to properly cite this HowStuffWorks.com article:

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States of Matter Experiments

What is matter? Matter is all around us, and here are some fun and easy science experiments to explore the three states of matter. From chemical reactions to examples of reversible change to ice melt activities, there are states of matter project ideas for kids of all ages.

States of Matter For Kids

What is matter? In science, matter refers to any substance that has mass and takes up space. Matter consists of tiny particles called atoms , and it takes different forms depending on how the atoms are arranged. These are what we call states of matter .

What are the three states of matter?

The three states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas. Although a fourth state of matter exists, plasma, it’s not shown in any demonstrations.

Solid: A solid has tightly packed particles in a specific pattern, which cannot move about. You will notice a solid keeps its shape. Ice or frozen water is an example of a solid.

Liquid: In a liquid, the particles have some space between them with no pattern. Therefore, they are not in a fixed position. A liquid has no distinct shape but will take the shape of a container it is put into. Water is an example of a liquid.

Gas: In a gas, the particles move freely from one another. You can also say they vibrate! Gas particles spread out to take the shape of the container they are put in. Steam or water vapor is an example of a gas.

WATCH THE STATES OF MATTER VIDEO!

Changing States of Matter

When matter changes from one state to another, it’s called a phase change. Phase changes are examples of physical changes. Learn more about physical changes here .

Some examples of phase changes are melting (changing from a solid to a liquid), freezing (changing from a liquid to a solid), evaporation (from a liquid to a gas), and condensation (from a gas to a liquid).

Does one phase take more energy than another? The change to gas takes the most energy because the bonds between the particles have to separate to change completely.

The bonds in a solid only have to loosen up a bit to change phase, such as a solid ice cube changing to liquid water.

💡Check out our solid, liquid, gas experiment for an easy way to demonstrate phase change for kids.

States of Matter Worksheet

Start with this free states of matter worksheet pack and free science experiment.

States of Matter Science Experiments

Next, try a fun state of matter experiment. Below, you will find lots of great examples of states of matter. Some of these experiments involve a chemical change, such as adding a liquid and a solid together to produce a gas. Other experiments demonstrate a physical change . Look for helpful teaching tips below.

Combine Baking Soda and Vinegar

Hands down, baking soda and vinegar are our favorite chemical reactions for kids! Check out states of matter in action. All that fizzing fun is a gas!

💡 Explore a variety of Baking Soda and Vinegar Science Experiments for Kids.

Blow Up A Balloon Experiment

Blow up a balloon with an easy chemical reaction. This experiment is perfect for demonstrating how a gas spreads out and fills the space.

Make Butter In A Jar

Science you can eat! Turn a liquid into a solid with a bit of shaking!

Explore A Cloud In A Jar

Cloud formation involves the change of water from a gas to a liquid. Check out this simple science demonstration.

Try Crushing A Soda Can

Who would have thought the condensation of water (gas to liquid) could crush a soda can!

Set Up a Freezing Water Experiment

Will it freeze? What happens to the freezing point of water when you add salt.

Make Frost On A Can

It’s a fun winter experiment for any time of the year. Turn water vapor into ice when it touches the surface of your cold metal can.

Grow Crystals

Make a supersaturated solution with borax powder and water. Observe how you can grow solid crystals as the water evaporates (changes from liquid to gas) over a few days.

Also, try growing salt crystals and sugar crystals .

Freezing Bubbles

This is a fun state of matter experiment to try in the winter. Can you turn liquid bubble mixture into a solid?

Churn Ice Cream In A Bag

Turn milk and sugar into a yummy frozen treat with our easy ice cream in a bag recipe.

Play with Ice Melt Activities

Here you will find over 20 fun theme ice melt activities which make for playful science for preschoolers. Turn solid ice into liquid water!

Investigate What Melts

Compare how fast different everyday items melt in the sun. A fun states of matter experiment to do in the summer!

Microwave Ivory Soap

What happens to ivory soap when you heat it? It’s all because water changes from a liquid to a gas.

Make Your Own Soap

Making soap from a simple glycerin base involves several states of matter. Even better, you end up with a fun surprise at the end!

Recycle with Melting Crayons

With our easy instructions, you can recycle your old crayons into new crayons. Melting crayons is also a great example of a reversible phase change from solid to liquid to solid.

Edible States with Melting Chocolate

A super simple science activity that you get to eat at the end!

Investigate Evaporation of Water

Dive into the process of evaporation, a liquid changing to a gas, and investigate what factors affect the rate of water evaporation.

Get Messy with Oobleck

There is always an exception to the rule! Is it a liquid or a solid? Just two ingredients, this is a fun activity to set up and discuss how oobleck can fit the description of both a liquid and a solid.

Try the Soda Balloon Experiment

Salt in soda is a great example of a change of states of matter, the carbon dioxide dissolved in the liquid soda moves to a gaseous state.

Put Together a Water Cycle In A Bag

Not only is the water cycle important for all life on earth, it is also a great example of phase changes of water, including evaporation and condensation.

Make a DIY Water Filtration

Separate a liquid from solids with this water filtration lab you can build yourself.

What Makes Ice Melt Faster

Start with a solid, ice and explore different ways to change it to a liquid. Fun ice melting experiment!

Tips and Tricks for Explaining States of Matter

Teaching states of matter to kids can be a fun and engaging experience, especially with hands-on activities and interactive lessons.

Helpful Science Resources To Get You Started

Here are a few resources that will help you introduce science more effectively to your kiddos or students and feel confident when presenting materials. You’ll find helpful free printables throughout.

• Best Science Practices (as it relates to the scientific method)
• Science Vocabulary
• 8 Science Books for Kids
• All About Scientists
• Free Science Worksheets
• Science Supplies List
• Science Tools for Kids
• Scientific Method for Kids
• Easy Science Fair Projects
• Citizen Science Guide
• Join us in the Club

Printable Science Projects For Kids

If you’re looking to grab all of our printable science projects in one convenient place plus exclusive worksheets and bonuses like a STEAM Project pack, our Science Project Pack is what you need! Over 300+ Pages!

• 90+ classic science activities  with journal pages, supply lists, set up and process, and science information.  NEW! Activity-specific observation pages!
• Best science practices posters  and our original science method process folders for extra alternatives!
• Be a Collector activities pack  introduces kids to the world of making collections through the eyes of a scientist. What will they collect first?
• Know the Words Science vocabulary pack  includes flashcards, crosswords, and word searches that illuminate keywords in the experiments!
• My science journal writing prompts  explore what it means to be a scientist!!
• Bonus STEAM Project Pack:  Art meets science with doable projects!
• Bonus Quick Grab Packs for Biology, Earth Science, Chemistry, and Physics

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~ projects to try now ~.

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4 Ways to Turn a Liquid Into a Solid

Last Updated: March 5, 2024 Fact Checked

• Freezing Water

Crystallizing a Sugar Solution

• Polymerizing Milk
• Evaporating Saltwater

This article was reviewed by Anne Schmidt . Anne Schmidt is a Chemistry Instructor in Wisconsin. Anne has been teaching high school chemistry for over 20 years and is passionate about providing accessible and educational chemistry content. She has over 9,000 subscribers to her educational chemistry YouTube channel. She has presented at the American Association of Chemistry Teachers (AATC) and was an Adjunct General Chemistry Instructor at Northeast Wisconsin Technical College. Anne was published in the Journal of Chemical Education as a Co-Author, has an article in ChemEdX, and has presented twice and was published with the AACT. Anne has a BS in Chemistry from the University of Wisconsin, Oshkosh, and an MA in Secondary Education and Teaching from Viterbo University. There are 23 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 145,674 times.

Matter exists in three basic states: solid, liquid, and gas. Through freezing, crystallization, polymerization, and evaporation you can change the state of a solution or compound from liquid to solid. These experiments are easy to do at home, and some even result in something edible! Just remember to get an adult to help you with heating liquids and moving hot containers.

Freezing Water into Ice

• Hot water actually freezes more quickly than cold water. Try freezing separate containers of hot and cold water to compare the results. [1] X Research source
• Feel free to try this out with other drinks like fruit juice or lemonade. If you use an ice cube tray or popsicle tray, you’ll be able to enjoy popsicles later on!
• Don’t use a glass container. The water will expand as it freezes and might break the glass. Breakage will also happen if you put a glass container filled with hot water in the freezer, so don’t ever try this.

• Check to make sure the freezer is set to a temperature below 32 °F (0 °C), which is the freezing point of water. [2] X Research source

• A tray of ice cubes will freeze in about 3 hours.
• A plastic water bottle might be frozen after 4 or 5 hours.
• Check back after 8 to 10 hours for a big plastic bowl of water.
• Sugary liquids like fruit juice will take longer than plain water to freeze. [4] X Research source

• If you leave the ice at room temperature, it will melt and return to its liquid state after a while. An ice cube will melt in a matter of minutes!

• This will encourage more sugar crystals to form from the liquid solution.

• You’ve successfully created a solution, which is a combination of more than one compound.
• If you want to turn your crystallized sugar into edible rock candy , add a few drops of liquid food coloring and/or liquid food flavoring while the solution is still boiling. [9] X Research source

• Wear oven gloves for protection and be careful not to splash the liquid.
• It’s essential to use a heat-safe container for this step. Any other glass may shatter.

• If the top opening of the glass container is narrow, pinch the skewer with an alligator clip. The sides of the clip should rest on the rim of the container and keep the skewer in place.
• Another way to hold the skewer in place is to create a plus-shape out of 2 other skewers. Tape these 2 together and rest them over the rim of the container. Finally, tape the sugary skewer to the others so it remains upright.

• If you notice the skewer crystals are getting close to other crystals growing along the sides of the glass container, gently move it away so the growth of your skewer crystals isn’t disturbed.

• If you’d like to eat your rock candy, allow the skewer to drip-dry within another container. [14] X Research source Once the liquid has dried, you can enjoy your crystallized sugary snack!

Polymerizing Milk into Plastic

• Alternatively, this can be done in a saucepan on a stovetop, with adult supervision.
• Whole milk will work much better than 2% or skim milk because it has a higher fat content.
• Add extra calcium or lime to the milk this will help solidify the milk.

• While stirring, you’ll notice hard clumps or curds forming in the milk.
• This will start to smell pretty weird. Don’t let this put you off, though. Keep stirring!

• If you’re having a hard time picking the curds up with your spoon, tilt the container over a strainer above a sink to drain out most of the liquid. [17] X Research source

• Use a few extra pieces of paper towel to pat the curds dry if the original sheets get too damp.

• The ball of curds you’re holding is now casein plastic!
• When the milk curdled, the liquid separated from the fat solids and casein protein solids. The fat and protein bonded together in a polymer chain, making it a plastic.

• Wear disposable gloves to prevent the dye from staining your hands.
• You can also try rolling it out flat and cutting out a shape using a cookie cutter.
• Whatever you try, make sure to finish everything within 1 hour of pulling the curds out of the milk. It will harden soon after that.

• Once the plastic has completely hardened, you can draw on it with markers.

Evaporating a Saltwater Solution

• Keep stirring until you can’t see any more particles of salt in the water.
• This mixture is now a solution.

• A metal baking pan, cake tin, or another shallow baking dish will work.
• Keep the container uncovered.

• Through the process of evaporation, the liquid water will turn to gas while the dissolved salt will return to its solid state. [23] X Research source

Community Q&A

Things You'll Need

• Plastic container
• Adult supervision
• Granulated sugar
• Liquid food coloring (optional)
• Liquid food flavoring (optional)
• Bamboo skewer
• Tape or alligator clip
• Heat-safe glass container
• Oven gloves
• Microwave-safe container
• White vinegar
• Paper towel
• Disposable gloves (optional)
• Food coloring (optional)
• Cookie cutter (optional)

Evaporating Salt Water

• Shallow container

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• ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yk3OMYCtXtg&t=229s
• ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jLZ7DWteVJs/
• ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8teQanGa3tU
• ↑ https://van.physics.illinois.edu/ask/listing/1586
• ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lgLh3nYBIM0/
• ↑ https://youtu.be/VpOU0Fo7QfU?t=70
• ↑ https://youtu.be/VpOU0Fo7QfU?t=87
• ↑ https://youtu.be/VpOU0Fo7QfU?t=99
• ↑ https://youtu.be/VpOU0Fo7QfU?t=203
• ↑ https://youtu.be/VpOU0Fo7QfU?t=124
• ↑ https://youtu.be/VpOU0Fo7QfU?t=131
• ↑ https://youtu.be/VpOU0Fo7QfU?t=140
• ↑ https://youtu.be/VpOU0Fo7QfU?t=171
• ↑ https://youtu.be/VpOU0Fo7QfU?t=180
• ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B_mov-HOdko/
• ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=atCXgFMuRfM/
• ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E1yHr_Rcqwo/
• ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lDdLrdxXC_8/
• ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RF-aET54CGk/
• ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D17eWH-cS9c/
• ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f-PT-PxA_Sk/
• ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=anWIPFxtPes/
• ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2iXqoLPjSTg/2

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Elementary Teaching Blog

Last updated by Linda Kamp on December 10, 2022 • 4 Comments

Solid, Liquid & Gas: Pop Rocks Science Experiment

This Pop Rocks science experiment is a fun way for students to investigate how combining a solid and liquid forms a gas.

Solid, Liquid, Gas: Pop Rocks Science Experiment

Most kids know the fizz that bubbles up when you pour a glass of soda is carbon dioxide gas called carbonation. What they may not know is how it is made. Carbonation is made by forcing  carbon dioxide gas and water into the soda at high pressures. This easy science experiment aligns to Next Generation Science Standards and is perfect for students to explore the properties of gas.

• 12 oz. bottle of soda
• medium sized kitchen funnel
• 8 inch round balloon
• Pop Rocks candy
• student lab sheet

1.  Place the balloon over the end of a small kitchen funnel. We stretched the balloons first and even blew them up a little then released the air to stretch them further so the candy would fall in easier.

2. Pour the Pop Rocks candy into the funnel. Tap the funnel until the candy flows into the balloon. Gently shake the balloon so the candy falls to the bottom.

3.  Stretch the balloon over the mouth of the soda bottle. Lift the balloon up so the candy pours into the bottle. Listen for the popping sound as the gas releases, rises, and fills the balloon.

Students use the lab sheet in this science unit to collect data by drawing the steps they took and recording observations they made. I ask them to think about the properties of gas, then analyze their data, explain their result, and what caused the balloon ti inflate.

Explain the Pop Rocks Science to Your Students

The science behind the experiment is pretty simple. Each tiny piece of Pop Rocks candy contains a small amount of carbon dioxide gas. When it is dropped into a liquid the candy gets wet releasing tiny gas bubbles that make a popping sound as they burst out of the candy shells.

Carbonated drinks contain a lot of pressurized carbon dioxide. When Pop Rocks are poured into the soda some of the gas in the soda collects as millions of bubbles on the candy. As more gas is released from the candy it moves upward and in to the balloon to fill the space.

Remember, gases fill their container or space. Since the balloon fits tightly around the mouth of the bottle, the gas has nowhere else to go up and into the balloon!

Are you a 2nd grade teacher planning a  matter unit soon?

Be sure to check out this complete States & Properties of Matter unit and teaching Power Point because I’ve done all the planning for you!

Click here for States & Properties of Matter 

I know your class will enjoy this Pop Rocks science experiment as a fun way to explore combining a solid and liquid to form a gas.

For more science experiments and properties of matter activities visit these posts:

Exploring Solids, Their Properties & Flexibility

Marvelous  Matter Activities for 2nd Grade Scientists

Properties of Matter Cracker Lab

Happy teaching and experimenting!

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Reader Interactions

September 23 at 5:34 pm

Hi! Is there a way to purchase the lab sheet only? Thanks!?

September 1 at 9:46 am

It felt unprofessional to show the write up and then only make available when the $14 unit is purchased. Since you show it, it should of been a freebie.

September 12 at 9:41 am

Hi Liz, You are certainly welcome to use the idea I shared.

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Hello Friends

I’m Linda Kamp, a 20 year primary grade teacher with a passion for creating educational materials that excite students and make learning fun! I'm so glad you're here!

States of Matter Science Experiments

Are you using states of matter science experiments? Matter has three states; solid, liquid, and gas. Most students know and can identify the three states of matter in isolation. Still, to test their knowledge, they should experience hands on activities that allow them to see how the three states of matter interact with one another. If you do not include science experiments in your states of matter unit , your students miss this critical part of the scientific process. Including hands on activities does not have to be complicated. Read about five easy activities that you can incorporate into your states of matter unit.

Five Hands on Activities to Teach States of Matter

States of matter experiment #1 raisins dance :.

How much fun is it to dance? While it might be difficult to throw an upper elementary science dance party, making your science experiment dance doesn’t have to be as hard. 

This activity requires three materials: 

• Clear soda, such as Sprite

This simple states of matter experiment will allow students to see how solid, liquid, and gas substances react. 

To perform the activity, fill the glass 3/4 full of the clear soda. Then, add the raisins. Watch what happens. 

The science behind this experiment : Students will see the raisins “dancing” in the soda. The raisins will fall to the bottom of the glass and then float back up to the top. They will then fall again. What is happening in the carbonation gas from the soda adheres to the raisin. This causes the raisins to float to the top. Once the bubble pops at the surface, the raisin then falls to the bottom again.

States of Matter Experiment #2 Shaving Cream: 

Shaving cream is a peculiar substance as it can be difficult to distinguish whether it is a solid or a liquid. This activity is also reasonably easy; however, it will take several days for students to fully process their observations and inferences . 

Materials needed for this activity are: 

• Shaving cream
• Paper towel

For this activity, you will put a blob of shaving cream on each student’s paper towel. Allow students to observe the shaving cream up close. If you have magnifying glasses, you may want students to use them to try to get as close a look as possible. 

After students have had time to observe, allow them to hypothesize which state of matter they think shaving cream falls into. 

The science behind the experiment : Shaving cream is a unique substance because its characteristics do not neatly fall into a solid, liquid, or gas category. When in a can, the shaving cream is a mixture of soap and water compressed as a gas. When the can is sprayed, the shaving cream is released as a solid, which eventually condenses to a liquid. 

This activity is fun because it shows students how substances can change their state of matter over time. Even though the materials are simple, students love this activity.  

States of Matter Experiment #3 Ice Cream in a Bag : 

Who doesn’t love ice cream? No matter what time of year, this is a fun activity to show your students how temperature can affect the state of matter. 

Materials needed : 

• Vanilla extract
• Half and half
• Kosher or rock salt
• Ziploc bags
• Thermometer

Before the states of matter experiment, have a discussion with students about the characteristics of each substance and which state of matter it falls into. Combine the vanilla extract and half and half. Pour the mixture into a small Ziploc bag. Place the smaller bag into a larger one filled with ice and the Kosher or rock salt. Then SHAKE! Students can take turns shaking as this experiment can take up to ten minutes of shaking. After that time, the liquid should turn into a solid for a delicious treat. 

The science behind this experiment : The salt lowers the temperature of the ice, which allows the half and half and vanilla to freeze. Be sure to use enough rock salt and ice, or the mixture will not freeze.  

Grab the Ice Cream in a Bag activity for FREE by clicking the button below. 

States of Matter Experiment #4 Air Balloons: 

It can be challenging for students to understand that gases have mass and are spread out to fill their containers. This states of matter experiment will allow students to visualize this concept as the balloon fills up with carbon dioxide.

• One liter soda bottle
• Triple beam balance

Your science students will enjoy this simple states of matter experiment. All that needs to be done is to open the soda bottle cap and then place the balloon around its opening. Now, you will have to wait. 

While you are waiting, indulge in a classroom conversation about the characteristics of states of matter. 

The science behind this experiment : After about ten minutes, you should be able to observe the carbon dioxide gas fill the balloon. 

To show students that the gas in the balloon has mass, place it on the triple beam balance to measure its mass. Compare this mass to an empty balloon to signify the difference.

States of Matter Experiment #5 Soapy States : 

Teach students that states of matter are all around us. Pointing out real-life examples of a solid, liquid, or gas will help students make deeper connections to the content. 

One everyday object that we can use to illustrate this point is soap. While it is super easy to distinguish that soap is solid, what happens when you put soap in the microwave? 

• Two other brands of soap
• Bin of water

For this activity, students will observe differences between the different brands of soap. Placing the soaps into the water bin will allow students to see what the Ivory brand will float while the other brands sink. 

The science behind this experiment : It is imperative to use Ivory soap as this is the only soap brand on the market that has air whipped into it. The air created little pockets of gas which allow this brand of soap to float in water.

It also allows this brand to expand when it is put into the microwave. When placed in the microwave for 30 seconds, gas pockets will expand, which creates an incredible visual for the students. 

Your students will love these science activities to enhance your states of matter unit. Want these activities ready to go? Check them out here . 

Need more ideas to teach your states of matter unit? Click the button below to learn how I teach this unit to my students. 

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Hands-on Activity Exploring the States of Matter with Rock Candy!

Grade Level: 5 (3-5)

(90 minutes (three 30-minute sessions), plus optional 30 minutes for class demonstration, plus at least 5 days for crystals to grow)

Expendable Cost/Group: US $5.00

Group Size: 1

Activity Dependency: None

Subject Areas: Physical Science, Physics, Problem Solving, Reasoning and Proof, Science and Technology

NGSS Performance Expectations:

TE Newsletter

Engineering connection, learning objectives, materials list, worksheets and attachments, more curriculum like this, pre-req knowledge, introduction/motivation, vocabulary/definitions, troubleshooting tips, activity extensions, activity scaling, additional multimedia support, user comments & tips.

Chemical engineers use science to solve problems and create useful things. They know a lot about chemicals and how different materials behave. For example, they figure out how to make food such as candy and chocolate, create fuels for cars and planes, and even help clean dirty water. They design special processes to turn raw materials into products we use every day, making sure everything is safe and works well. Think of them as problem-solvers who mix science and creativity to make the world a better place!

After this activity, students should be able to:

• Classify matter as solid, liquid, or gas based on particle movement.
• Explain the conditions that cause phase changes.
• Predict how different materials will behave when exposed to temperature changes (cooling or heating).
• Demonstrate understanding of the properties of solids, liquids, and gases by creating a visual representation or model of their knowledge.

Educational Standards Each TeachEngineering lesson or activity is correlated to one or more K-12 science, technology, engineering or math (STEM) educational standards. All 100,000+ K-12 STEM standards covered in TeachEngineering are collected, maintained and packaged by the Achievement Standards Network (ASN) , a project of D2L (www.achievementstandards.org). In the ASN, standards are hierarchically structured: first by source; e.g. , by state; within source by type; e.g. , science or mathematics; within type by subtype, then by grade, etc .

Ngss: next generation science standards - science.

State Standards

Texas - math.

View aligned curriculum

Do you agree with this alignment? Thanks for your feedback!

Texas - Science

Each student needs:

• 1 packet of Pop Rocks
• 3 different colored sticky notes
• laptop, computer, or tablet with access to States of Matter Sorting Activity
• States of Matter Worksheet
• States of Matter Post-Quiz
• science or engineering notebook
• pencil or pen

Teacher needs the following for the demo (OR students can make the rock candy at home with an adult):

• Rock Candy Recipe
• 1 stovetop or heating source
• 1 cooking pot (non-Teflon)
• 1 measuring cup
• 1 metal spoon or fork
• 1 wooden dowel, wood skewer, or popsicle stick
• 1 half-pint Mason jar
• 1 clothespin or cloth peg wide enough to cover the top of the container or glass
• 1 ½ cups of granulated sugar (pure cane or white)
• ½ cup of bottled water
• 1 drop of liquid food coloring
• 1 pair of safety goggles
• 1 pair of thermal gloves
• 1 apron or appropriate clothing or old t-shirt (in case the solution is splashed or spilled)
• (optional) candy thermometer to clip to side of saucepan to measure temperatures from 100℉-400℉ (38℃-204℃)

Students should:

• Be familiar with the states of matter.
• Have experience classifying objects by observable properties (e.g., shape, mass, temperature, texture, flexibility).
• Have a basic understanding of cause and effect.

Today we are going to explore the states of matter with rock candy. Before we dive into that, let’s review: What are the three states of matter? (Answer: liquid, solid, and gas.)

How can we tell whether a substance is a solid, liquid, or gas? (Let students offer answers.) That’s right, we can determine whether a substance is a solid, liquid, or gas by observing its characteristics and behavior. Solids have a definite shape and volume; they are rigid and do not flow. Examples include ice, wood, and metal. Liquids have a definite volume but no definite shape; they take the shape of their container and can flow. Examples include water, oil, and mercury. Gases have neither a definite shape nor a definite volume; they expand to fill their container and can be compressed. Examples include air, steam, and helium.

There are two theories that will help us understand the physical properties of matter. The first theory is called Particle Theory. This theory tells us that everything is made up of very tiny bits or particles. So, matter is made up of tiny particles. When talking about particles, we sometimes use the words atom, molecule , and particle to refer to those small particles. Understanding what particles are is very helpful to understanding the behaviors of materials.

The other theory that we’ll talk about to help us understand the matter around us is Kinetic Molecular Theory. This theory states that matter is made up of particles that are constantly moving. All particles have energy, but the energy varies depending on the temperature of the sample of matter. This, in turn, determines whether the substance exists in the solid, liquid, or gaseous state. So, we need to understand that changing the temperature of a substance could make it change from one state to another.

What causes matter to change from one state of matter to another? (Let students offer answers. Potential answers: Matter changes from one state to another primarily due to changes in temperature and pressure. When energy, usually in the form of heat, is added to or removed from a substance, it can cause the molecules within that substance to move more quickly or slowly, leading to a phase change.)

Let’s practice some examples:

• How does a solid (e.g., ice) become liquid (e.g., water)? [Answer: Heating a solid (e.g., ice) can cause it to melt into a liquid (e.g., water).]
• How does a liquid (e.g., water) become a gas? [Answer: Heating a liquid (e.g., water) can cause it to evaporate into a gas (e.g., steam).]
• How does a gas become a liquid? [ Answer: Cooling a gas can cause it to condense into a liquid.]
• How does a liquid become a solid? [Answer: Cooling a liquid can cause it to freeze into a solid.]

Today we are going to do an experiment with sugar that will help us learn more about particle behavior when heated and cooled.

Rock candy is made by creating a supersaturated solution of sugar and water, which is heated until the sugar dissolves completely. This solution is then allowed to cool and is poured into containers that have sticks or strings suspended in them. As the solution cools further and evaporates over several days, sugar crystals form and grow on the sticks or strings. This crystallization process results in the formation of large, edible sugar crystals, commonly known as rock candy.

With the Students:

Day 1 (30 minutes)

Part 1: Introduction

• Go over the Introduction and Motivation section with the class.

Part 2: Rock Candy In-Class Demonstration (OR have students do this at home with an adult)

• Share the Rock Candy Recipe with instructions on how to do the experiment.

• Before starting the candy: Dip half of each wood skewer in water, then roll each one on a plate that contains the granulated sugar. This step is very important because it will create the seed crystals that will make the rock candy. Once each wood skewer is coated with the granulated sugar, set it aside until it dries, at least two hours.
• Set the candy thermometer in the wall of the pot to check the temperature of the solution.
• Add ½ of cup of water to a cooking pot and let it boil. Let the solution reach a boiling point.

• Continue stirring the solution slowly for several minutes. Keep watching and mixing frequently to avoid crystallization of the top of the solution. It will take around 10 minutes to reach a clear liquid mixture texture.
• When the solution begins to boil, stir it rapidly until all of the sugar is mixed completely in the solution.
• Turn the heat off and add one drop of food coloring.  
• Remove the pot from the burner.
• Let the solution cool for 20 minutes.  
• Take the pot with the solution and pour it into the half-pint Mason jar or a tall transparent glass. 
• Place the sugar-coated stick into the middle of the glass. It is very important to leave the skewer 1½ inches away from the bottom of the jar so it will not touch the bottom or the walls. 
• Place a big clip into the middle of the container to hold the skewer with the sugar seed in place.  
• Leave the solution there and made frequent checks. Check the crystals every hour and make sure that the skewer is not touching the bottom of the jar or the walls. 
• Wait at least 3-5 days; when the crystals are done growing, use a spoon to crack the top shell of the solution. 

Part 3: States of Matter Particle Sticky Note Activity and Class Discussion

• Give each student three different colored sticky notes.
• Say to students: “Imagine we have a very strong microscope that can see the molecules and particles that make up each state of matter. I am going to give you 30 seconds to draw each of the following:”
• Have students label their first sticky note (Color 1) “Solid” and draw how they think the molecules behave in something solid they own (e.g., pencils, marker, paper, desk, etc.). Are the molecules moving? Are they far apart? Are they close together?
• Have students label their second sticky note (Color 2) “Liquid” and draw how they think the molecules behave in the liquid in their water bottle. Are the molecules moving? Are they far apart? Are they close together?
• Have students label their last sticky note (Color 3) “Gas” and draw how they think the molecules act in the air.
• Have the labels “Solid,” “Liquid,” and “Gas” on the white board or somewhere in the classroom.
• Have everyone take their sticky notes and place them under the label corresponding to each state of matter. Remind students that Color 1 is solids, Color 2 is liquids, and Color 3 is gases.
• Ask students to write what they notice about the drawings under each title in their science notebooks.
• Lead a class discussion of the three groupings of states of matter based on the following:
• Solid particles tend to be packed together, sometimes in tight shapes or formations.
• Liquid particles also are packed together but not as tightly as solid particles. Remind students that liquids take on the shape of their container and can flow, whereas solids are rigid and do not flow.
• Gas particles will be spread out from each other. If there is space, gas particles will expand to fill the space.
• Present the two theories of matter:
• The first theory is called Particle Theory. This theory tells us that everything is made up of very tiny bits or particles. So, matter is made up of tiny particles. When talking about particles, sometimes we use the words atom, molecule, and particle to refer to those small particles. Understanding what particles are is very helpful to later understand the behaviors of materials.
• The second theory is called Kinetic Molecular Theory. This theory states that matter is made up of particles that are constantly moving. All particles have energy, but the energy varies depending on the temperature the sample of matter is in. This, in turn, determines whether the substance exists in the solid, liquid, or gaseous state. So, we need to understand that changing the temperature of a substance could make it change from one state to another.
• Summarize what these theories mean: “Matter changes from one state to another primarily due to changes in temperature and pressure. When energy, usually in the form of heat, is added to or removed from a substance, it can cause the molecules within that substance to move more quickly or more slowly, leading to a phase change.”
• Have students practice some examples:
• How does a solid (e.g., ice) become liquid (water)? [Answer: Heating a solid (e.g., ice) can cause it to melt into a liquid (water.]
• How does a liquid (e.g., water) become a gas? [Answer: Heating a liquid (e.g., water) can cause it to evaporate into a gas (steam).]
• How does a gas become a liquid? [Answer: Cooling a gas can cause it to condense into a liquid.]

Part 4: Pop Rocks Experiment

• Ask the students if they have ever tasted a candy called Pop Rocks, (Let students raise their hands.) Tell them that today they are going to explore the states of matter using this candy, and that you will give each of them their own packet of Pop Rocks. Tell them they will use all of their senses and make predictions about the candy, recording their observations and predictions in their science notebooks.
• Have each student wash or disinfect their hands.
• Hand out one Pop Rocks candy packet to each student.
• Tell the students to open their candy bag and pour a small amount into their hand but not to eat any yet. Have them observe the candy with their eyes and ask them what state of matter they think Pop Rocks are.
• Have students write down their observations in their science notebooks. (Let students share their observations.)
• Tell the students to now taste the Pop Rocks. Ask them what sensations they feel in their mouth, and what they think is happening. (Let students offer answers: fizzy, gas, liquid, solid.)
• Have students write down their observations in their science notebooks.
• Summarize the activity: “Pop Rocks contain sugar, milk sugar (lactose), corn syrup, flavoring, and carbon dioxide gas. In our hands, they are solid (crystallized sugar candy), but in our mouths, they become liquid and gas. Why? The magic happens in the manufacturing process. Sugar syrup is heated (liquid) and then mixed with pressurized carbon dioxide gas (gas). This traps tiny bubbles of the gas inside the candy as it cools and solidifies again. In your mouth, the candy dissolves (liquid), releasing the trapped carbon dioxide (gas). The rapid release of gas creates the signature popping sound and fizzing sensation.”
• Conclude by telling students: “For ice melting at room temperature, the state change (solid to liquid) occurs due to the ongoing absorption of heat from the temperature of the room. At the same time, transition from liquid to gas (evaporation) is a separate process happening. Unlike ice melting at room temperature, Pop Rocks state changes occur (from liquid sugar syrup to solid candy) during manufacturing, not when you eat them. In your mouth, the candy dissolves (liquid) and releases the pre-trapped gas.”

Day 3 Part 5: Crazy Particles Game

• Introduce the Crazy Particles game as an introduction to Particle Theory.
• Create an open area without tables, chairs, or any objects where the game can be played.
• Clearly indicate the borders of the container or jar, or indicate the location or markers that will be the outer limits of the area that you will be using to play the game.
• Ask three students to come up with you to help you to demonstrate the rules of the game.
• Tell them that when you say “solid,” everyone begins by standing close together.
• Tell them you will give a little description of what is happening to the particles when they are solid. For example, saying, “You are frozen, you are a solid ice cube. But look, we have a surprise—the sun is coming out! You’re beginning to get a little bit warmer. And it seems that you are CHANGING TO A DIFFERENT STATE OF MATTER!. You are now behaving like a liquid. You are melting.” Everyone should continue to move around slowly.
• Then say: “You are a liquid. You are now water flowing inside a container.” Students will create groups of 2 or 3 and hold hands, moving their legs and arms but holding hands.
• Then indicate another state of matter, saying, “It is getting warmer. Some particles are changing matter because it is getting so hot, and they cannot stand it.” Students will get out of the limits and walk faster. Students inside the jar will start separating and leaving their small groups, walking a little bit faster. Students can rock back and forth with their partners until they disconnect from them. 
• Then say, “It is so hot that the water is evaporating. The water is really hot—now it is boiling.” Students should move in straight lines until they hit a wall, and then they will pretend they are bouncing off and move in a straight line in a different direction.
• Tell students: “You are rising up out of the container. You are now in the air.” Students will move out of the contained area and be moving quickly all over the place. They should keep moving in straight lines until they hit a wall and then they can bounce off and move in a straight line in a different direction. 
• Play music in the background while students move as if they were particles of water in the state of matter that you indicate. 

Part 6: Computer Particle Simulations

• Let students see what happens when changing temperature, or allow students to identify the state of matter by looking at different visualization models and sort them according to the three basic states.

Part 7: Conclusion

• Have students complete the States of Matter Post-Quiz to gauge their understanding (end-of-lesson assessment).
• (optional) If the rock candy is ready, share the rock candy with the class.

change of phase: Occurs when matter changes from one state (solid, liquid, gas) to another. The temperatures and pressures under which these changes happen differ depending on the chemical and physical properties of the system. These changes occur when sufficient energy is supplied to the system, or when the pressure on the system is changed.

condensation: The action that occurs to a gas when cooled.

crystallization: A natural process that occurs as materials solidify from a liquid and create an ordered array. This can be caused by a physical change, such as a temperature change, or a chemical change, such as acidity. Crystallization consists of two major events, nucleation and crystal growth.

dissolving: Takes place when a substance is dispersed through another to become a single material. This material is called a solution.

energy: The ability to do work or make things happen. Examples include light, sound, heat, movement, and electricity.

evaporation: Occurs when a liquid is heated enough that it will boil or change state from liquid to gas.

freezing: When liquid is cooled enough, it will freeze or change state from liquid to solid.

gas: In the gas state, particles expand freely to fill the whole of the container. Atoms and molecules are far apart. Particles do not have a fixed shape (unlike a solid) and do not have a fixed volume (unlike a liquid).

liquid: The liquid state has particles that still are close together but move freely. The atoms and molecules in liquids are farther apart than in solids, which gives them the freedom to move around. Particles have a fixed volume, but they can adopt the shape of the container they are in.

nucleation: The initial process that occurs in the formation of a crystal from a solution, a liquid, or a gas, in which a small number of ions, atoms, or molecules become arranged in a pattern characteristic of a crystalline solid, forming a site upon which additional particles are deposited as the crystal grows.

physical change: A change of size, shape, or state of matter.

saturation point: The point reached when the solvent cannot dissolve any more of the solute. For example, when a water sample cannot dissolve any more sugar, the solution has reached its saturation point.

solid: The solid state has atoms and molecules huddling closely together, which makes them rigid and stiff. Molecules are frozen in place and do not flow around. Particles have a fixed shape.

solution: A liquid mixture made up of several components. The minor component (the solute) is uniformly distributed within the major component (the solvent).

state of matter: A state of matter in physics; one of the three distinct forms in which matter can exist in our world: solid, liquid, and gas. Each state has specific properties.

temperature: A physical quantity that expresses how cold or hot something is using a comparative scale.

Pre-Activity Assessment

States of Matter Particle Sticky Note Activity and Class Discussion: Students individually draw particle behaviors for solid, liquid, and gas states of matter. After everyone shows their ideas, the class discusses the results.

Activity Embedded (Formative) Assessment

States of Matter Sorting Activity : Students see what happens when changing temperature, or allow students to identify state of matter by looking at different visualization models and sort them according to the three basic states.

Post-Activity (Summative) Assessment

Post-Quiz: Students review what they learned in the activity using the States of Matter Post-Quiz .

Optional: After the activity, ask students to watch the following video: “What are the states of matter?” After watching the video, have students gather in groups of three and engage in open discussion, writing in their science notebooks different items that belong to each state of matter. 

Safety Issues

Because this activity involves working with boiling water in the kitchen, it will require close adult supervision at home. Students need to be careful and focus only on the activity when stirring the boiling solution. It is preferable that a parent or other adult stir the solution for them. The consistency of the solution (thickness and viscosity) will change from being a syrup to a liquid when the boiling solution is ready to be taken off the stove. It is required that a parent or other adult be present to help and supervise students and make sure that the area of preparation is clear from obstacles and safe. This is a fun homework assignment, but it requires concentration, and no toddlers or other small children should be playing nearby. It is preferable to do the activity after carefully reviewing the sequence and steps of the procedure. Keep the handout with the steps nearby during the entire procedure.

• Use caution near the flame from the stove.
• Use careful movements when you mix the liquid in your pot and you are near the hot stove.
• Use thermal gloves and avoid touching the pot or any surface exposed to heat.
• Use eye protection (goggles or safety glasses) during this activity.
• Wash your hands, disinfect the zone that you will be using, and clean all of the containers that you will use before mixing your ingredients. Although the bacteria that occur naturally during the experiment are generally harmless, students should nevertheless wash their hands after finishing the experiment.

Students doing the experiment at home need to prepare the sugar-coated wood skewers in advance. Let the mixture cool for at least 30 minutes; if it's too hot, the sugar coating on the skewer will dissolve, ruining the crystal seed needed for the candy to form. The crystal seed helps attract sugar molecules to the skewer.

If the solution is left to cool for too long (several days), sugar crystals will form throughout the entire pot or jar.

Ensure that the skewer is not touching the jar’s bottom or sides, and keep it at least 1 ½ inches

Crazy Particle Game: Here’s how to explain and teach the Crazy Particles Game , which introduces students to Particle Theory and the three states of matter. You'll need a gym or open space without obstacles, and some music for the background.

• Prepare the Space: Define the boundaries of the play area, which will represent the "container" where particles (students) move. You can mark the area with cones or tape to set the outer limits.
• Explain the States of Matter: Start by telling the students that they will act like water particles in different states of matter—solid, liquid, and gas.

Instructions:

• Solid State:
• Teacher's Direction: Tell students they are now in a solid state (like ice).
• Movement: Students should group together tightly, standing close without moving much. Explain that in solids, particles are packed closely and only vibrate in place.
• Teacher's Narration: Say something like, “You are frozen ice particles! You can only vibrate a little bit in place.”
• Transition to Liquid:
• Teacher's Direction: Say, “The sun is coming out, and you are getting warmer! You’re melting into water, a liquid.”
• Movement: Students move around slowly, holding hands in groups of 2-3, representing how particles in a liquid move but still staying relatively close.
• Teacher's Narration: Explain that liquid particles can move past one another but remain together within a container. “You are flowing water now, still staying within the boundaries of the container.”
• Transition to Gas:
• Teacher's Direction: Say, “It’s getting hotter, and the water is starting to evaporate into gas!”
• Movement: Students let go of their partners and move quickly in straight lines, bouncing off the walls or boundaries as they "evaporate." Emphasize that gas particles move freely and spread out.
• Teacher's Narration: Describe how gas particles are far apart and move randomly. “You are now water vapor rising into the air. You are moving freely, no longer confined to a container.”
• Phase Changes:
• As the game progresses, you can switch between states of matter by calling out “solid,” “liquid,” or “gas,” and have students change their movements accordingly.
• Optionally, introduce cooling so they can reverse the process, going from gas to liquid, and back to solid by "freezing" again.

After the game, discuss how their movements reflected the behavior of particles in different states of matter. Explain that in solids, particles are tightly packed and vibrate; in liquids, they move around each other but stay close; and in gases, they spread out and move freely.

This activity is a fun, physical way to help students understand the dynamic nature of particles in different states of matter!

For lower grades, play the Crazy Particle Game (Introduction to Particle Theory) only.

States of Matter for Kids |Solids, Liquids, and Gases Video (Learn Bright)

PBS Learning Media - States of Matter

PBS Learning Media - What's the Matter?

University of Colorado Boulder - Simulations 

Students are introduced to chemical engineering and learn about its many different applications. An associated hands-on activity gives students a chance to test their knowledge of the states of matter and how to make observations using their five senses: touch, smell, sound, sight and taste.

tudents are introduced to the similarities and differences in the behaviors of elastic solids and viscous fluids. In addition, fluid material properties such as viscosity are introduced, along with the methods that engineers use to determine those physical properties.

Students learn how to classify materials as mixtures, elements or compounds and identify the properties of each type. The concept of separation of mixtures is also introduced since nearly every element or compound is found naturally in an impure state such as a mixture of two or more substances, and...

To gain an understanding of mixtures and the concept of separation of mixtures, students use strong magnets to find the element of iron in iron-fortified breakfast cereal flakes. Through this activity, they see how the iron component of this heterogeneous mixture (cereal) retains its properties and ...

05/22/2022. https://klru.pbslearningmedia.org/

05/22/2022.  https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/states-of-matter-basics

Other Related Information

What causes matter to change from one state to another?

Answer: Matter changes from one state to another primarily due to changes in temperature and pressure. When energy, usually in the form of heat, is added to or removed from a substance, it can cause the molecules within that substance to move more quickly or slowly, leading to a phase change. For example:

• Heating a solid (e.g., ice) can cause it to melt into a liquid (e.g., water).
• Heating a liquid (e.g., water) can cause it to evaporate into a gas (e.g., steam).
• Cooling a gas can cause it to condense into a liquid.
• Cooling a liquid can cause it to freeze into a solid.
• Increasing pressure on a gas can force it into a liquid state (and vice versa).

What do we look for to identify the state of matter?

Answer: To identify the state of matter, we look at several physical properties:

• Shape and volume: Solids have a fixed shape and volume. Liquids have a fixed volume but take the shape of their container. Gases have neither a fixed shape nor a fixed volume, expanding to fill their container.
• Particle arrangement: In solids, particles are tightly packed in a regular pattern. In liquids, particles are close but not in a fixed position, allowing them to flow. In gases, particles are far apart and move freely.
• Energy levels: The energy of particles is highest in gases, lower in liquids, and lowest in solids.

How can we tell if a substance is a solid, liquid, or gas?

Answer: We can determine whether a substance is a solid, liquid, or gas by observing its characteristics and behavior:

• Solids have a definite shape and volume. Solids are rigid and do not flow. Examples include ice, wood, and metal.
• Liquids have a definite volume but no definite shape. Liquids take the shape of their container and can flow. Examples include water, oil, and mercury.
• Gases have neither a definite shape nor a definite volume. Gases expand to fill their container and can be compressed. Examples include air, steam, and helium.

Contributors

Supporting program, acknowledgements.

This curriculum was developed under the National Science Foundation MRSEC RET program. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions of recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors, and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

Last modified: September 27, 2024

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Solids, Liquids and Gases

A range of interactive and print-out practical activities provided by the Association for Science Education to help children understand the properties of solids, liquids and gases and the changes that take place when materials are heated

Information is provided through cartoons, downloadable worksheets and ideas for experiments under the following topic headings:

Solids Liquids Changing solids into liquids and back again Dissolving and not dissolving Gases Solids, liquids and gases Solid to liquid to gas Changing states of water More about dissolving Reversible and non-reversible changes Glossary of science terms Topics follow the QCA scheme of work for Key Stage 2, but curriculum links are also provided for the Welsh, Scottish and Northern Ireland curricula.

The experiments have been adapted from those used in workshops for pupils aged 7-11 years by The Making Place  or are taken from That's Chemistry by Jan Rees. That's Chemistry was produced as part of the Royal Society of Chemistry's programme of support for education and a copy was sent free of charge to every primary school in the UK in 2001 with support from ABPI. Further information about this resource, together with details of how to order further copies, may be found here .

Guidance is provided for activities that require a particular awareness of safe working practices. Teachers should use their knowledge of their pupils' capabilities to select appropriate practical work for them to do.

You may also be interested in our online,self-paced course  Teaching primary science: chemistry.  

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Please be aware that resources have been published on the website in the form that they were originally supplied. This means that procedures reflect general practice and standards applicable at the time resources were produced and cannot be assumed to be acceptable today. Website users are fully responsible for ensuring that any activity, including practical work, which they carry out is in accordance with current regulations related to health and safety and that an appropriate risk assessment has been carried out.

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Science in School

The effect of heat: simple experiments with solids, liquids and gases teach article.

Author(s): Erland Andersen, Andrew Brown

From a homemade thermometer to knitting needles that grow: here are some simple but fun experiments for primary-school pupils to investigate what happens to solids, liquids and gases when we heat them.

Why do elephants squirt water onto their backs? How does fog form? And why do trains make a ‘clickety clack’ noise? Your students will have answers to all of these questions once they have understood how heat affects solids, liquids and gases.

In this small collection of experiments, we begin by investigating how heat alters the properties of the three states of matter. We then examine how heat can convert gases, liquids and solids from one to another. After each experiment, in the manner of true scientists, we question our results and think about how we could improve our experimental design.

Each of the five experiments relies on simple materials and is suitable for pupils aged 7-11 (although note that the reviewer suggested the article is suitable for pupils aged 10-13). When used together, they could occupy your class for a whole day, but they could also be split up and used in separate lessons. Before starting, ask your students to think about what solids, liquids and gases actually are, in terms of their appearance and properties w1 .

Changing properties

1) make your own thermometer: gases expand when heated.

This experiment introduces the idea that heat makes gases expand. Students will make their own thermometer based on this principle.

Safety note

Teachers should perform the step involving scissors. See also the  general  Science in School  safety note .

Per group of pupils:

• A rigid plastic bottle with a lid
• Play dough or modelling clay, e.g. Plasticine ®
• A transparent plastic drinking straw
• A pair of scissors
• Food colouring (optional)
• Use a pair of scissors to make a hole in the top of the bottle lid, big enough for the drinking straw to fit through.
• Fill the bottle halfway with cold water.
• Add a few drops of food colouring and mix.
• Screw on the bottle lid and insert the straw through it into the water, making sure that the straw does not touch the base of the bottle.
• Seal around the hole in the lid using play dough, thereby fixing the straw in place. The seal must be completely airtight.
• Place one hand on the upper part of the bottle. What happens to the liquid in the straw, and why?

What happens?

The heat from your hand warms the air inside the bottle. The air expands and pushes on the water, causing it to rise up the straw.

Questions for your pupils

• Was it really heat that caused the liquid to rise up the straw, or could pressure from your hands be responsible?
• How can we test this experimentally?

Answers: the bottle was rigid and, assuming you didn’t squeeze, the liquid rose up the straw due to heat, not pressure. You can test this by placing your hands close to but not on the bottle and seeing if the liquid still rises up the straw.

2) Watch a knitting needle grow: solids also expand when heated

In the previous experiment, the heat from a pair of hands was sufficient to expand the gas in the bottle considerably. Solids, however, expand much less than gases for a given increase in temperature. In the following experiment, we will use a simple but sensitive device to observe the expansion of a knitting needle when heated by a candle.

Because naked flames and sharp objects are used in this experiment, it is advisable to perform it as a demonstration. See also the  general  Science in School  safety note .

• A metal knitting needle
• Two empty glass bottles (wine bottle are suitable)
• A cork to fit one of the bottles
• A set of keys or other object (e.g. modelling clay) to weigh down one end of the knitting needle
• A pile of books (or other objects to support the apparatus)
• A sewing needle with a cylindrical shaft
• A drinking straw
• A tea light (short candle)
• Push the cork halfway into one of the bottles.
• Push the sharp end of the knitting needle into the side of the cork, so that the knitting needle is just above the rim of the bottle.
• Lay the other end of the knitting needle across the mouth of the second bottle.
• Stick the sewing needle through the drinking straw, one third of the way along the straw’s length. The hole should be small enough that the straw does not turn loosely around the needle.
• Place the sewing needle (with straw attached) across the mouth of the second bottle, underneath the knitting needle and at right angles to it.
• Hang a weight (e.g. keys) on the free end of the knitting needle.
• Point the straw downwards.
• Place a pile of books between the two bottles.
• Place the candle on top of the pile of books. Adjust the height of the pile so that the top of the candle is approximately 3 cm from the knitting needle.
• Light the candle. What happens to the straw? What causes this?

The heat from the candle causes the knitting needle to expand. As it expands lengthways, it moves over and rolls the sewing needle. The straw magnifies the small movements of the sewing needle.

• We have seen that solids and gases expand when heated, but what about liquids? Answer: liquids are no exception – they too expand when heated.
• What problems might heat-related expansion cause for bridges or railways? Answer: see the images to the right.

Changing states

So far, students have seen what happens when we heat solids and gases: they expand. You have also told your students that liquids do the same. But what happens when we heat substances even further (figure 1)? Ask your students to think about a bar of gold; it is solid at room temperature, at 100 °C, and even at 500 °C. But what happens when we raise the temperature even higher, to 1064 °C? At this temperature, something amazing happens: the solid gold becomes a liquid! Heat the liquid further still (to 2856 °C) and the liquid boils and turns into a gas.

Of course, this is a rather extreme example; most of us will never experience gold in its gaseous form. But everyone in the class will be familiar with water moving through the three states of matter: turning from solid ice to liquid water (0 °C), then to its gaseous form, water vapour (100 °C). So as well as expanding them, heat can also cause substances to change state. Different substances require different amounts of heat to do this: it takes more heat to boil gold than to boil water. But in theory at least, all substances can exist in the three states of matter.

In the following experiments, we will look at what happens when we turn liquid water to a gas – and back again.

3) Liquid to gas: evaporation on your finger

Even before a liquid boils, some of it may start to turn into gas – ask your students to think of the wisps of steam that come off a pan of water long before it boils. In this experiment, students will see that that even our fingertips generate enough heat to make small amounts of water turn from a liquid to a gas. We call this process evaporation.

• A cup of water

This experiment is best done outdoors or somewhere where there is a draft, such as near an open window.

• Dip your index finger in the water, then hold it up.
• What do you see and feel?

The water evaporates from your finger, leaving it dry. Your finger also feels cold. This is because the heat from your body is transferred to the liquid water and carried away in water vapour.

• In this experiment we heated liquid water, but what happens when we heat a solid? Think about what happens when you heat butter. Answer: solids melt when heated.
• How could we improve our experiment? Answer: what if your finger felt cold not because of evaporation, but because the water was cold? To test this idea, we could use water at body temperature (37 °C). Try it – you should get the same result.
• Using what you have learned, can you explain why elephants sometimes squirt water onto their backs? Answer: elephants do this to cool themselves down, by taking advantage of the cooling power of evaporation.

4) Gas to liquid: condensation in a bag

Students have seen that heating a liquid can turn it into a gas (evaporation), but this is a reversible process: cooling a gas sufficiently turns it into a liquid, in a process called condensation. In the following experiment, students will investigate condensation.

• A transparent plastic bag
• An elastic band
• A small cloth
• Run the cloth under a tap to make it wet and then squeeze it to remove the excess water.
• Place the cloth inside a plastic bag. Trap some air inside the bag and seal it.
• Leave the bag in a warm place, such as on a radiator or in direct sunlight, for one hour. What do you see?

Water droplets form on the inside surface of the bag.

How? Water evaporates from the wet cloth so that the air inside the bag contains lots of water vapour. The inside surface of the bag is cool enough to change the water vapour back into liquid water.

• In this experiment we cooled a gas (water vapour), but what happens when we cool a liquid? Think about how you make ice cubes. Answer: when cooled, liquids freeze and become solid.
• How could we modify our experiment to make the water droplets form faster? Answer: making the surface of the bag colder, for example by placing ice cubes next to it, will make condensation occur faster.
• Which causes fog: evaporation or condensation? Answer: fog forms when water vapour cools and condenses into a cloud of small water droplets near the ground (like a cloud but lower down).

Acknowledgement

The instructions on how to make a thermometer were adapted from the California Energy Commission’s Energy Quest website. See their website for this and other science projects .

Web References

• w1 – The BBC Bitesize website features concise, high-quality teaching resources for students. It includes an excellent section on the  properties of solids, liquids and gases .
• w2 – To find out more about one of the authors, visit  Erland Andersen’s website (in Danish) .
• w3 – The  small energy driving licence certificate and teacher’s handbook (both in Danish)  can be downloaded from the website of the Danish Electricity Association (Dansk El-Forbund).
• Watch a  video of a simple experiment showing that gases expand when heated , involving nothing more than a refrigerated drink and a coin.
• Watch a  video showing solids expanding when heated and gases contracting when cooled  (involves fire, liquid nitrogen and a balloon).

Erland Andersen is a former primary-school teacher from Denmark. He now provides  training courses for science teachers w2 .

Erland developed the activities in this article as part of a  ‘small energy driving licence’ w3 . Pupils earn their licence by performing energy-related experiments in small groups. Erland encourages the pupils to explain and question their results, and to use what they have learned to explain real-world phenomena.

Andrew Brown is a molecular and cellular biology graduate of the University of Bath, UK. He currently works for Science in School, based at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory in Heidelberg, Germany.

The main strength of this article is that it presents a group of activities in an order that makes sense as a whole. Even though the activities are likely to be known by many teachers, the suggested sequence and questions will help teachers approach some rather difficult concepts, such as heat transfer, evaporation and condensation. The activities also help teachers to examine the reversibility of some of these processes. Another important advantage of this article is that it uses feasible and easy experiments, which can be carried out using standard school equipment and cheap materials.

Christiana Nicolaou, Cyprus

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In-Situ Investigation of Phosphorus Transformation and Distribution During Gas-Based Reduction of High-Phosphorus Oolitic Hematite

• Original Research Article
• Published: 30 September 2024

Cite this article

• Guangheng Ji 1 ,
• Cihong Xiao 1 ,
• You Zhou 1 &
• Wanlin Wang 1  

High-phosphorus oolitic hematite is recognized as one of the most refractory iron ores due to the intergrowth of phosphorus and iron, making traditional separation techniques ineffective. Gas-based direct reduction followed by magnetic separation is of significance to realize the efficient recovery of iron from low-grade iron ore, accompanying the reduction of phosphorus. However, the transformation and migration behavior of phosphorus during the reduction process remains unclear. To simulate the direct reduction of this ore, the initial heating followed by the reduction experiments were performed. Using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), this study first investigated the phosphorus transformation under a high-purity Ar atmosphere heating from 25 °C to 1500 °C. The results indicate that fluorapatite (Ca 5 (PO 4 ) 3 F) underwent a sequence of defluorination, partial dissolution, and complete dissolution, corresponding to solid (Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 ), solid-liquid coexistence, and liquid phases (P 2 O 5 ), respectively. Subsequently, the migration behavior of three kinds of phosphorus in different states during CO reduction was clarified through a quantitative mass balance analysis. At 1200 °C, solid Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 was not reduced by CO. By 1300 °C, (P 2 O 5 ) in the melt was reduced, and more than half of phosphorus escaped to the gas phase. The increase in dissolved (P 2 O 5 ) in the melt accelerated the reduction of phosphorus at 1400 °C, resulting in an increase of phosphorus in the iron phase. Finally, inhibiting (P 2 O 5 ) dissolution in the melt via Al 2 O 3 addition could decrease phosphorus content in the iron phase, providing a visible strategy to promote the utilization of high-phosphorus iron ores.

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Acknowledgments

The present work is financially supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 52174326), the Hunan Scientific Technology Projects (No. 2022SK2080), and National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 52104283).

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Guangheng Ji, Cihong Xiao, Xu Gao, You Zhou & Wanlin Wang

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Ji, G., Xiao, C., Gao, X. et al. In-Situ Investigation of Phosphorus Transformation and Distribution During Gas-Based Reduction of High-Phosphorus Oolitic Hematite. Metall Mater Trans B (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11663-024-03304-x

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Received : 09 July 2024

Accepted : 18 September 2024

Published : 30 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11663-024-03304-x

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