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Rebellion in the forest - Concepts - Chapter 4 Class 9 History - Forest Society and Colonialism - History

Last updated at April 16, 2024 by Teachoo

Rebellion in the Forest

• In many parts of India, and across the world , forest communities rebelled against the changes that were being imposed on them.
• The leaders of these movements against the British like Siddhu and Kanu in the Santhal Parganas, Birsa Munda of Chhotanagpur, or Alluri Sitarama Raju of Andhra Pradesh are still remembered today in songs and stories.

The people of Bastar

• Bastar is located in the southernmost part of Chhattisgarh and borders Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, and Maharashtra. The central part of Bastar is on a plateau.
• A number of different communities live in Bastar such as Maria and Muria Gonds, Dhurwas, Bhatras, and Halbas.
•  They speak different languages but share common customs and beliefs.
• The people of Bastar believe that each village was given its land by the Earth , and in return, they look after the earth by making some offerings at each agricultural festival.
• Since each village knows where its boundarie s lie, the local people look after all the natural resources within that boundary.
• If people from a village want to take some wood from the forests of another village, they pay a small fee called devsari, dand, or man in exchange.
• Every year there is one big hunt where the headmen of villages in a pargana (cluster of villages) meet and discuss issues of concern, including forests.

The Fears of the People

• When the colonial government proposed to reserve two-thirds of the forest in 1905 and stop shifting cultivation, hunting, and collection of forest produce , the people of Bastar were very worried.
• Some villages were allowed to stay in the reserved forests on the condition that they worked free for the forest department in cutting and transporting trees, and protecting the forest from fires. Subsequently, these came to be known as ‘forest villages’
• People of other villages were displaced without any notice or compensation. Then came the terrible famines, in 1899-1900 and again in 1907-1908.
• People began to gather and discuss these issues in their village councils, in bazaars, and at festivals or wherever the headmen and priests of several villages were assembled.
• The initiative was taken by the Dhurwas of the Kanger forest, where reservation first took place.
• In 1910, mango boughs, a lump of earth, chilies, and arrows, began circulating between villages. These were actuall y messages inviting villagers to rebel against the British.
• Bazaars were looted , the houses of officials and traders, schools and police stations were burnt and robbed, and grain was redistributed.
• William Ward, a missionary who observed the events, wrote : ‘From all directions came streaming into Jagdalpur, police, merchants, forest peons, schoolmasters, and immigrants.’
• The British sent troops to suppress the rebellion.
• The Adivasis leaders tried to negotiate, but the British surrounded their camps and fired upon them.
• It took three months (February - May) for the British to regain control.
• However, they never managed to capture Gunda Dhur.
• In a major victory for the rebels, work on reservations was temporarily suspended, and the area to be reserved was reduced to roughly half of that planned before 1910.
• In the 1970s, the World Bank proposed that 4,600 hectares of natural sal forest should be replaced by tropical pine to provide pulp for the paper industry. It was only after protests by local environmentalists that the project was stopped.

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Forest society and colonialism.

Quickly browse through questions and notes on related topics. You can also download and read this topic offline.

Rebellion in the Forest

In many parts of India, and across the world, forest communities rebelled against the changes that were being imposed on them.

The Fears of the People

• The colonial government’s proposal of reserving two-thirds of the forest in 1905, and banning shifting cultivation, hunting and collection of forest produce, made the people of Bastar suffer.
• Some villages, called the forest villages, were allowed to stay in the reserved forests if they worked free for the forest department in cutting and transporting trees and protecting the forests from fires.
• The people of Bastar rebelled against the changes imposed upon them.
• The initiative was taken by the Dhurwas of the Kanger forest where reservation first took place.
• The British sent troops to suppress the rebellion.
• It took them three months to regain control.
• A victory for the people of Bastar was that the work on the reservation was suspended and the area was reduced to half.

The People of Bastar

• Bastar is located in the southernmost part of Chhattisgarh and borders Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Maharashtra. 
• The central part of Bastar is on a plateau.
• To the north of this plateau is the Chhattisgarh plain and to its south is the Godavari plain.
• The river Indrawati winds across Bastar east to west.
• A number of different communities live in Bastar such as Maria and Muria Gonds, Dhurwas, Bhatras and Halbas.
• The people of Bastar believe that each village was given its land by the Earth, and in return, they look after the earth by making some offerings at each agricultural festival.
• Each village knows where its boundaries lie, the local people look after all the natural resources within that boundary.

• CBSE Notes For Class 9
• Class 9 Social Science Notes
• Class 9 History Notes
• Chapter 4 Forest Society And Colonialism

CBSE Class 9 History Notes Chapter 4 - Forest Society and Colonialism

Chapter 4 – Forest Society and Colonialism will take you into the forest. It talks about the growth of industries and urban centres, ships and railways, and new demand in the forests for timber and other forest products. Students will also get to learn topics such as new rules of forest use, new ways of organising the forest, colonial control, how forest areas were mapped, trees were classified, and plantations were developed. The chapter will give you an idea of the history of such developments in India and Indonesia. CBSE Class 9 notes on history will help the students to study the subject in a very detailed and concise way. These CBSE Class 9 History notes are all prepared by subject experts and have kept the study material very simple, including the language and the format.

• Chapter 1 The French Revolution
• Chapter 2 Socialism In Europe and The Russian Revolution
• Chapter 3 Nazism and The Rise Of Hitler
• Chapter 5 Pastoralists In The Modern World

CBSE Class 9 History Notes Chapter 4 – Forest Society and Colonialism

Why deforestation.

Deforestation means the disappearance of forests and is not a recent problem. It began many centuries ago, but under colonial rule, it became more systematic and extensive.

Land to be Improved

Over the centuries, as the population grew and the demand for food went up, peasants started clearing forests and breaking new land. British encouraged the production of commercial crops like jute, sugar, wheat and cotton. In the 19th century, the demand for these crops increased. The colonial state thought that forests were unproductive in the early 19th century. So between 1880 and 1920, cultivated areas and the expansion of cultivation showed a sign of progress.

Sleepers on the Tracks

In England, by the early nineteenth century, oak forests were disappearing. Search parties were sent to India to explore the forest resources. Railways spread from the 1850s. Railways were essential for colonial trade and for the movement of imperial troops. From the 1860s, the railway network expanded rapidly. Trees started falling as the railway tracks spread through India. The government gave out contracts to individuals to supply the required quantities. Forests around the railway tracks started disappearing.

Plantations

Large areas of natural forests were cleared to make way for tea, coffee and rubber plantations to meet Europe’s growing need for these commodities. The forests were taken over by the colonial government, which gave vast areas to European planters at cheap rates to plant tea or coffee.

The Rise of Commercial Forestry

British were worried that the reckless use of trees by traders and the use of forests by local people would destroy forests. Dietrich Brandis, a German expert, became the first Inspector General of Forests in India. He realised that a proper system had to be introduced to manage the forests, and people needed to be trained in the science of conservation. But it needed legal sanction. In 1864, Indian Forest Service was set up in Dehradun in 1906. In scientific forestry, natural forests, which had lots of different types of trees, were cut down. In 1906, the Forest Act was enacted, which was amended twice, once in 1878 and then in 1927. The Act of 1878 divided forests into three categories: reserved, protected and village forests. The best forests were called ‘reserved forests’.

How Were the Lives of People Affected?

Villagers wanted forests with species of different types to satisfy their needs for fuel, fodder and leaves. On the other hand, the forest department wanted trees like teak and sal suitable for building ships or railways. Roots, leaves, fruits and tubers were used for many things. In the forest, almost everything was available such as herbs, yokes, ploughs, bamboo, etc. From the fruit of the mahua tree, oil was extracted for the purpose of cooking and lighting lamps. The Forest Act meant severe hardship for villagers across the country. People were forced to steal wood from the forests. Forest guards used to take bribes if they got caught. Police constables and forest guards harass people by demanding free food from them.

How Did Forest Rules Affect Cultivation?

The practice of shifting cultivation or swidden cultivation was introduced during European colonialism or swidden agriculture. It is a traditional agricultural practice in many parts of Asia, Africa and South America. In shifting cultivation, parts of the forest are cut and burnt in rotation. After the first monsoon rains, seeds are sown in the ashes, and the crop is harvested by October-November. For a couple of years, such plots are cultivated and then left for 12 to 18 years. On these plots, a mixture of crops is grown. According to European foresters, this practice is harmful to the forests. This type of cultivation also made it difficult for the government to calculate taxes. So, the government decided to ban shifting cultivation.

Who Could Hunt?

People who lived near forests survived by hunting deer, partridges and a variety of small animals. The practice was prohibited by the forest laws, and those who were caught hunting were punished for poaching. In India, hunting of tigers and other animals is a part of the culture of the court and nobility for centuries. The scale of hunting increased under colonial rule to such an extent that various species became almost extinct. Rewards were given for killing wild animals. Some areas of the forest were reserved for hunting.

New Trades, New Employment and New Services

New opportunities opened up in trade. In India, forest trade was not new. It existed from the medieval period when Adivasi communities used to trade elephants and other goods like hides, horns, silk cocoons, ivory, bamboo, spices, fibres, grasses, gums and resins through nomadic communities like the Banjaras. But, trade was completely regulated by the government, which gave many large European trading firms the sole right to trade in the forest products of particular areas. New opportunities for work did not improve the well-being of the people.

Rebellion in the Forest

Forest communities rebelled against the changes that were being imposed on them. Some of the leaders of these movements are the Siddhu and Kanu in the Santhal Parganas, Birsa Munda of Chhotanagpur or Alluri Sitarama Raju of Andhra Pradesh.

The People of Bastar

Bastar is located in the southernmost part of Chhattisgarh and borders Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Maharashtra. The Bastar central part is on a plateau, and to the north is the Chhattisgarh Plain and to its south is the Godavari Plain. Different communities live in Bastar, such as Maria and Muria Gonds, Dhurwas, Bhatras and Halbas. The people of Bastar believed that each village was given its land by the Earth, and in return, they looked after the Earth by making some offerings at each agricultural festival. Local villagers look after all the natural resources within their boundaries, and people pay a small fee called devsari, dand or man in exchange if they want to take some wood from the forests of another village.

The Fears of the People

In 1905, the colonial government proposed to reserve two-thirds of the forest and stop shifting cultivation, hunting and collection of forest produce. Some people used to stay in forests by working for free for the forest department, and these are called forest villagers. Villagers, in the long run, suffered from increased land rents and frequent demands for labour and goods. People started discussing these issues in their village councils, bazaars, and festivals. Dhurwas of the Kanger forest took the initiative where reservation first took place. Bazaars were looted, the houses of officials and traders, schools and police stations were burnt and robbed, and grain was redistributed. British troops were sent to suppress the rebellion. After Independence, the same practice of keeping people out of the forests and reserving them for industrial use continued.

Forest Transformations in Java

Java is famous as a rice-producing island in Indonesia. But, there was a time when it was covered mostly with forests. In Java, the Dutch started forest management. Villages existed in the fertile plains, and there were also many communities living in the mountains and practising shifting cultivation.

The Woodcutters of Java

The Kalangs of Java were skilled forest cutters and shifting cultivators. They are experts in harvesting teak and for the kings to build their palaces. When the Dutch began to gain control over the forests in the eighteenth century, they tried to make the Kalangs work under them. In 1770, the Kalangs resisted by attacking a Dutch fort at Joana, but the uprising was suppressed.

Dutch Scientific Forestry

In the nineteenth century, the Dutch enacted forest laws in Java, restricting villagers’ access to forests. Wood could only be cut for making riverboats or constructing houses. Villagers were punished for grazing cattle, transporting wood without a permit, or travelling on forest roads with horse carts or cattle. Firstly, the Dutch imposed rents on land being cultivated in the forest and then exempted some villages from these rents if they worked collectively to provide free labour and buffaloes for cutting and transporting timber. This was known as the blandongdiensten system.

Samin’s Challenge

Surontiko Samin of Randublatung village, a teak forest village, questioned the state ownership of the forest and argued that the state had not created the wind, water, earth and wood, so it could not own it. Soon a widespread movement developed. Some of the Saminists protested by lying down on their land when the Dutch came to survey it, while others refused to pay taxes or fines or perform labour.

War and Deforestation

The First World War and the Second World War had a major impact on forests. In Java, the Dutch followed ‘a scorched Earth policy’, destroying sawmills and burning huge piles of giant teak logs. After the war, it was difficult for the Indonesian forest service to get this land back.

New Developments in Forestry

Conservation of forests has become a more important goal. In many places, across India, from Mizoram to Kerala, dense forests have survived only because villages protected them in sacred groves known as sarnas, devarakudu, kan, rai, etc.

Students can go through Geography, History, Political Science and Economics notes by visiting the CBSE Class 9 Social Science page at BYJU’S. Keep learning and stay tuned for further updates on CBSE and other competitive exams.

Frequently Asked Questions on CBSE Class 9 History Notes Chapter 4: Forest Society and Colonialism

What is the colonial rule.

The policy or practice of a wealthy or powerful nation’s maintaining or extending its control over other countries, especially in establishing settlements or exploiting resources.

What is a plantation?

A usually large group of plants, and especially trees under cultivation, is called a plantation.

What are the effects of deforestation?

1. Soil erosion 2. Landslope 3. Increased amounts of carbon dioxide 4. Loss of biological activity

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• Forest Society and Colonialism

What is Forest Society?

From an ancient time, Indian farmers were using the forest for their cultivation. In the British period, the government thought that the farmers are destroying the forest for agriculture. To put a restriction on the farmer’s use of the forest, the Britishers made several laws. Also, they formed a society to supervise all the laws and their execution, which was named the forest society. It was established in 1946. It was incorporated in 1955. The society was mainly for forest preservation. Though conservation was the sole purpose, the British Government used it for their commercial purpose. In this article, we are going to discuss the rise of commercial forestry, and forest society and colonialism.

Deforestation Under the British Rule 

During British rule, there was major deforestation in India. The problem of deforestation has become more complicated for some reasons. For a huge increase in population, the food demand increased and the cultivation area was extended by clearing forests. The British government started cultivating commercial crops for which they had to clear a huge forest area. These were the two main reasons for deforestation in the British period.  They went for deforestation and increased the land for cultivation. Between 1880 and 1920, this deforestation occurred.

The Rise of Commercial Forestry

The British rulers restricted the overused forests by the Indians. They started it for the conservation of the forest. But later, they started using the forest for commercial purposes. The British rulers had requirements of wood and some commercial crops. They used the forest area for commercial crop cultivation, which increased the rate of deforestation. In 1865, they enacted the Indian Forest Act. After that, they introduced the term commercial forestry in 1878. By this act, the forest was divided into three areas- reserved, protected, and village forests.

Explanation of Forest Society and Colonialism

The British rulers restricted the forest area with the thought that the farmers are wasting the area by cultivation. Therefore, the British Government made a rule so that the forest areas are not destroyed. Though the forest area was preserved, the colonial Government started using it for their commercial purpose. Thus, the forest act and the forest society turned into colonialism. The British rulers were taking advantage of the forest society and colonialism for their commercial crop and wood production.

Forest Society and Colonialism Summary

In this process of the forest society and colonialism, the large areas of forest were cleared for cultivating commercial crops such as rubber, tea, coffee, etc. The British rulers used the areas because they can produce the crops at cheap rates and sell them in Europe at a high price.

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Questions and Answers

1. What Were the Main Reasons for Deforestation in India?

Solution: The main reasons for deforestation in India were the increasing population, huge food demand, commercial crop and wood production, etc.

2. Name the Categories of Forest Area.

Solution: In 1878, the forest act was enacted. According to this act, the forest area was divided into three parts, which are protected forests, reserved forests, and village forests.

3. Define the Reserved Forest and Village Forest.

Solution: The forest, which is reserved for commercial purposes, is called a reserved forest. Village forest is the area, where the Indians can live and use the forest for their purpose such as cutting and transporting trees.

FAQs on Forest Society and Colonialism

1. Why Should the Students Learn the Topic of Forest Society and Colonialism?

Ans: History is a vital subject for students. As they are the future citizens of the country, they should know their country well. For that, the students have to know the history of their country. The forest society and colonialism are a vital part of Indian history. In this topic, the students will learn about the causes of deforestation in India, the rise of commercial forestry, rebellion in the forest, forest transformation in Java, etc. By learning these topics, the students will get an idea about the British period of India. Also, the students have to read these topics to score good marks in the final exam of history.

2. What Kinds of Questions Appear in the Exam from the Forest Society and Colonialism?

Ans: The topic of forest society and colonialism is a vital chapter of history. In the exam, different types of questions appear from this chapter such as MCQ, short question, and long question. The students have to read the topic thoroughly to answer all the questions. They have to read the textbook correctly. The answers to those questions are in the textbook in detail. The students can practice different sample papers and important questions on the topic. They can find solutions to those questions on several educational websites. They can download the solutions in pdf format to study them for the exam.

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• > Journals
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• > Volume 37 Issue 1
• > Colonialism and Forestry in India: Imagining the Past...

Article contents

Colonialism and forestry in india: imagining the past in present politics.

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 June 2009

Forests in India are at the center of highly charged conflicts. Use of the past by the different historical subjects engaged in these contests over forest lands in India results in several threads intertwined across a shared frame. I shall try to unravel only one strand in this essay, namely, the official ideologies implicated in colonial forestry and the technologies of power that it spawned. I will show how the colonial state, drawing on several pasts, constructed the question of forests in India.

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• Volume 37, Issue 1
• K. Sivaramakrishnan (a1)
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0010417500019514

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Class 9 History Chapter 4 Notes - Forest Society and Colonialism

Forest play a major role in improving the quality of the environment , modifying the local climate , controlling soil erosion , regulating stream flow , supporting a variety of industries , providing a livelihood for many communities, and after recreation opportunities.

• They also provide a natural environment for wildlife and play an important role in maintaining the life support system .
• Forests have long been an integral part of human life, contributing to various aspects of our daily existence.
• The diversity within forests, such as those in the Amazon or the Western Ghats, is astounding, with some patches hosting hundreds of plant species.
• However, this  rich diversity is  rapidly diminishing.  Between 1700 and 1995, industrialization led to the clearing of  13.9 million square kilometers of forest, representing 9.3% of the world's forested area. 

This chapter explores the complex relationship between forest societies and colonial powers, examining how colonialism has impacted forest resources and the lives of those dependent on them. As we delve into this topic, we will uncover how the exploitation and transformation of forest landscapes have shaped not only the environment but also the social and economic dynamics of forest-dependent communities.

Providing a habitat for wildlife

Generating electricity

Producing plastic

Manufacturing cars

Why Deforestation?

Land to be Improved

• 1600 Land Use: Approximately one-sixth of India's landmass was under cultivation.
• Current Land Use:  Cultivated area has increased to about half of India's landmass.
• Population Growth:  Increased population and demand for food led to expansion of cultivated land.
• Colonial Influence:  British encouraged production of commercial crops like jute, sugar, wheat, and cotton.
• European Demand:  Nineteenth-century Europe needed foodgrains and raw materials for industrial production.
• Colonial Perspective:  Forests were seen as unproductive wilderness, leading to their clearance for agriculture.
• Cultivated Area Increase:  Between 1880 and 1920, cultivated land increased by 6.7 million hectares.
• Impact of Expansion: Expansion of cultivation often involved clearing forests, impacting environmental balance.

Sleepers on the Tracks

• Early 19th Century Timber Issue: Disappearance of oak forests in England led to a shortage of timber for the Royal Navy.
• Search for Alternatives:  By the 1820s, search parties were sent to India to explore forest resources.
• Timber Export:  Massive deforestation in India began, with timber exported to England.
• Railway Expansion (1850s):  New demand for timber for railway construction and fuel.
• Railway Sleepers:  Each mile of railway track required 1,760  to 2,000  sleepers made from wood.
• Network Growth:  By 1890, 25,500 km of railway track; by 1946, over 765,000 km.
• Deforestation Impact:  Rapid expansion led to increased felling of trees, notably in the Madras Presidency where 35,000 trees were cut  annually for sleepers.
• Indiscriminate Cutting:  Contractors, given government contracts, began cutting trees indiscriminately, causing significant forest loss.

Plantations

• Large areas of natural forests were also cleared to make way for tea , coffee , and rubber plantations to meet Europe’s growing need for these commodities.

• The colonial government took over the forests and gave European planters vast areas cheaply .
• These areas were enclosed , cleared of forests , and planted with tea or coffee .

Expansion of cultivation for commercial crops.

Increase in population and demand for food.

Search for alternatives to oak timber in England.

Establishment of plantations for tea and coffee.

The Rise of Commercial Forestry

In India, colonial rulers needed huge supplies of wood for railways and ships. This led to widespread deforestation . The British government got alarmed. The government invited Dietrich Brandis , a German forest expert, for advice, and he was appointed the first Inspector General of Forests in India. Brandis emphasizes that rules need to be framed about using forest wealth. Brandis realized that a proper system had to be introduced to manage the forests, and people had to be the science of conservation. 

This system needed legal sanction. It was at his initiative that;

• Indian Forest Service was set up in 1864.
• Indian Forest Act was enacted in 1865
• Imperial Forest Research Institute was set up in 1906. The system they taught here was called ‘scientific forestry’.

The 1878 Act divided forests into reserved, protected and village forests. The best forests were called ‘ reserved forestry ’. Villagers could not take anything from these forests, even for their use. They could take wood from protected or village forests for house building or fuel.

Dietrich Brandis, a German expert became the firsInspector General of  Forests  in  India . Brandis  set up  the  Indian Forest Service  in  1864 .

How were the Lives of People Affected?

- Conflicting Views on Forests:

• Villagers:  Preferred diverse forests for fuel, fodder, and other needs.
• Forest Department:  Desired trees suited for construction, focusing on hardwood species like teak and sal.

- Uses of Forest Products by Villagers:

• Nutritional:  Fruits and tubers for food, especially before harvest.
• Medicinal:  Herbs for medicine.
• Agricultural Tools:  Wood for implements such as yokes and ploughs.
• Crafts and Daily Use:  Bamboo for fences, baskets, and umbrellas; dried gourds as water bottles; leaves for plates and cups; ropes from creepers; bark for grating vegetables.
• Cooking and Lighting:  Oil from mahua tree fruit.

- Impact of the Forest Act:

• Restrictions:  Villagers' traditional practices like cutting wood, grazing cattle, and collecting forest products became illegal.
• Consequences:  Increased theft of wood; bribery and harassment by forest guards; specific hardships for women collecting fuelwood.
• Corruption:  Forest guards and police constables often demanded bribes and free food from villagers.

How did Forest Rules Affect Cultivation?

One of the major impacts of European colonialism was the practice of shifting cultivation or swidden agriculture . Shifting cultivation as a system of agriculture has the following features:

• Parts of forests are cut and burnt in rotation.
• Seeds are sown in the ashes after the first monsoon rains .
• The crop is harvested by October-November .
• Such plots are cultivated for a couple of years and then left fallow for 12 to 18 years for the forest to grow back.

Shifting cultivation has been practised in many parts of Asia, Africa and South America . In India , it is known by different names, such as dhya, panda, bewar, nevad, jhum, podu, khandad and kumri . The colonial government banned this practice of shifting cultivation. They felt that land used for cultivation every few years could not grow trees for railway timber .

Who could Hunt?

• Hunting Restrictions:  Forest laws banned the customary hunting of deer, partridges, and small animals for forest dwellers.
• Punishment:  Those caught hunting were punished for poaching.
• Historical Context:  Hunting of big game, like tigers and other large animals, was part of Indian royal culture.
• Colonial Impact:  Under British rule, hunting increased significantly, leading to the near extinction of several species.
• Civilizing Mission:  British saw large animals as symbols of a primitive society and believed killing them would help civilize India.
• Rewards System:  Rewards were given for killing tigers, wolves, and leopards, resulting in the killing of over 80,000 tigers, 150,000 leopards, and 200,000 wolves between 1875-1925.
• Notable Figures:  Maharaja of Sarguja killed 1,157 tigers and 2,000 leopards; British administrator George Yule killed 400 tigers.
• Conservation Efforts:  Initially, certain forest areas were reserved for hunting; later, conservationists advocated for protecting these species rather than killing them.

New Trades, New Employment and New Services

• New Trades: Some communities transitioned from traditional occupations to trading in forest products due to new opportunities.
• Global Example:  Mundurucu peoples in the  Brazilian Amazon began collecting latex from wild rubber trees in response to growing rubber demand.
• Indian Context: Forest product trade has a long history in India with adivasi communities trading goods like hides, ivory, bamboo, and spices.
• Government Control:  The British government monopolized forest product trade by granting European firms exclusive trading rights.
• Impact on Local Communities: Grazing and hunting restrictions led to loss of livelihoods for pastoralist and nomadic communities, some of whom were labeled as ‘criminal tribes’ and forced into factory or plantation work.
• Low Wages and Poor Conditions:  Forest communities recruited for tea plantations in Assam faced low wages and harsh working conditions.
• Limited Mobility:  Workers had difficulty returning to their home villages, further exacerbating their situation.

Rebellion in the Forest

Forest communities rebelled against the changes that were being imposed on them. Some of the leaders of these movements are the Siddhu and Kanu in the Santhal Parganas , Birsa Munda of Chhotanagpur , or Alluri Sitarama Raju of Andhra Pradesh .

The People of Bastar

• Bastar is located in the southernmost part of Chhattisgarh.
• The initiative was taken by the Dhurwas of the Kanger forest, where reservation first occurred .
• The new law of the Forest Act introduced by the Colonial government reserved two-thirds of the forest in 1905.
• The British sent troops to suppress the rebellion .
• It took them three months to regain control .
• A victory for the people of Bastar was that the work on the reservation was suspended and the area was reduced to half of that planned before 1910 .

The Fears of the People

• 1905 Proposal:  The British colonial government proposed reserving two-thirds of the forest, which included stopping shifting cultivation, hunting, and collection of forest produce.
• Impact on Villagers: Villages within reserved forests were forced to work for the forest department, becoming ‘forest villages’. Other villages were displaced without compensation.
• Economic Hardship: Increased land rents, demands for free labor and goods, and famines in 1899-1900 and 1907-1908 exacerbated the villagers' suffering.
• Resistance:  Villagers, led by figures like Gunda Dhur, organized a rebellion using symbols like mango boughs and arrows. They looted bazaars, attacked colonial officials, and redistributed grain.
• British Response:  The British sent troops to suppress the rebellion, leading to severe reprisals including flogging and burning of villages. Gunda Dhur evaded capture, and the rebellion temporarily halted reservation work and reduced the reserved area by half.
• Forest Reservation: After Independence, the practice of reserving forests for industrial use continued. In the 1970s, a proposal to replace natural  sal forests with tropical pine for paper production was halted only after local protests.
• Comparison:  Similar issues of forest reservation and local resistance occurred in other parts of Asia, such as Indonesia.

Loss of traditional hunting rights

Forced labor for the forest department

The proposal to reserve two-thirds of the forests

Increase in land rents and demands for free labor

Forest Transformations in Java

The Woodcutters of Java

• The Kalangs of Java were skilled forest cutters and shifting cultivators.
• They were experts in harvesting teak and for the kings to build their palaces.
• When the Dutch began to gain control over the forests in the eighteenth century , they tried to make the Kalangs work under them.
• In 1770 , the Kalangs resisted by attacking a Dutch fort at Joana , but the uprising was suppressed.

Dutch Scientific Forestry

• Forest laws were enacted in Java.
• The villagers resisted these laws.
• Forest timber was used for ships and railway sleepers.
• The Dutch government used the ‘ blandongdiensten ’ system to extract free labour from the villagers.

Samin’s Challenge

• Around 1890, Samin of  Randublatung village (a teak forest village) questioned the state ownership of forests.
• A widespread movement spread.
• They protested by lying on the ground when the  Dutch  came to survey it and refusing to pay taxes and perform labour.

World Wars and Deforestation

• World Wars led to the abandonment of forest management plans .
• Trees were cut extensively to support war needs .
• In Java during WWII , the Dutch destroyed sawmills and burned teak logs to prevent Japanese use .
• The Japanese  exploited forests recklessly , forcing villagers into logging for war industries .
• After WWII , villagers  expanded cultivation in formerly forested areas .
• Post-war, reclaiming forest land was difficult due to increased agricultural use .
• Ongoing conflict between forest control and agricultural expansion .

New Developments in Forestry

• Since the 1980s , a shift towards conservation rather than timber collection.
• Governments acknowledge the need to involve local communities in forest management.
• In India , dense forests have survived due to village protection through sacred groves (e.g., sarnas , devarakudu ).
• Villages have taken on forest patrol duties, with households rotating the responsibility.
• Local forest communities and environmentalists are exploring new forest management approaches.

In 1770, the Kalangs resisted by attacking a Dutch fort at Joana, but their revolt was brutally suppressed.

Difficult Words

• Colonialism - The policy of acquiring and maintaining colonies, typically for economic exploitation.
• Deforestation - The action of clearing a wide area of trees.
• Exploitation - The action of making use of and benefiting from resources.
• Ecological - Relating to or concerned with the relation of living organisms to one another and to their physical surroundings.
• Monopoly - The exclusive possession or control of the supply or trade in a commodity or service.
• Surplus - An amount of something left over when requirements have been met.
• Displacement - The forced movement of people from their locality or environment.
• Indentured - Bound by a formal agreement to work for a specific period in exchange for passage to a new country.
• Commercial - Concerned with or engaged in commerce.
• Subordination - The action or state of being lower in rank or position.
• Revenues - Income generated from normal business operations.
• Bureaucracy - A system of government in which most of the important decisions are made by state officials rather than by elected representatives.
• Cultivation - The action of cultivating land or crops.
• Incentives - Things that motivate or encourage someone to do something.
• Epidemics - Widespread occurrences of infectious diseases in a community at a particular time.
• Eviction - The action of expelling someone from a property.
• Prohibited - Formally forbidden by law, rule, or other authority.

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