what is a secondary source for research papers

Primary Sources Research Guide

• What Are Primary Sources?
• What Are Secondary Sources?
• Examples of Primary & Secondary Sources
• Where to Look for Primary Sources

Defining Secondary Sources

• Secondary sources interpret, analyze, and discuss the evidence provided by primary sources. Examples of secondary sources include scholarly books and articles.
• Secondary sources are generally a second-hand account or observation at least one step removed from the event, i.e., accounts written after the fact by people not present when an event took place. Such sources are second-hand interpretations of what occurred.
• Secondary sources, however, can be considered to be primary sources depending on the context of their use. For example, Ken Burns' documentary of the Civil War is a secondary source for Civil War researchers (because it consists of Burns' interpretation of primary source materials from the Civil War), but a primary source for those studying documentary filmmaking.
• Secondary sources benefit from the filter of time and differing cultural contexts and perspectives which may assist (or interfere with) scholarly analysis.

Secondary sources can include:

• biographical works;
• commentaries and critical reviews;
• books other than fiction or autobiographies
• journal, newspaper, and magazine articles written well after an event takes place

*Some of the above material is used with permission from the University of Pittsburgh Library's research guide on Primary Sources

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Primary and secondary sources: what are they and why do I need them?

What are the main differences between primary and secondary sources?

Why do i need to use both primary and secondary sources in my research, examples of primary and secondary sources, frequently asked questions about primary and secondary sources, related articles.

Primary and secondary sources are the two main types of source materials that you will use for your research project. They are both important and needed for your project. Whether you are going to use more primary or more secondary sources depends on your academic level - undergrad, postgrad, or professional.

Both types of sources have importance and merits of their own, but they are also immensely different. This guide will help you understand the differences. If you want to learn even more about both source types separately, where and how you can access them, and when and how to use them, check out the links below:

➡️  What is a primary source?

➡️  What is a secondary source?

The main difference between primary and secondary sources is that primary sources are contemporary.

Primary sources are original and originated from the event they refer to. They are not reviews, analyses, or critiques of events that occurred in the past. They are first-hand information.

Secondary sources are summaries, critiques, opinions, and analyses. They are written by people who did not witness, or have any direct part to play in the event they are describing. The information they contain is based on primary sources and is the author’s interpretation of the event/subject they are covering.

Using both types of sources adds to the merit of your research. By including references to secondary sources , you are showing that you have truly engaged with your research topic. You are providing extra information and displaying a well-rounded approach to your topic. You are not relying solely on the work of one person, or one institution, for your analysis to be based upon. You are reading broadly and contextually.

Likewise, including primary source references in your research shows that you are also going back to the roots. You are looking at the event or object as it happened, without being able to teleport through time and space. A primary source is vital because it will enable you to make your own judgement on an event or object. Secondary sources are always biased, in one sense or another, so engaging with the primary source yourself allows you to view the topic objectively.

Primary and secondary sources complement each other - looking at both can give you a deeper understanding of each. A primary source can help you to evaluate a secondary source - you will notice aspects of it which the author dismisses, or washes over in their discussion. Likewise, a secondary source can tell you about current trends in research and analysis, while providing you with a broad overview or summary of an extended period of time, or the works of an artist.

We have put together a list of examples of primary and secondary sources by fields of study. It will help you identify the nature of your source.

Primary sources are original and originated from the event they refer to. They are not reviews, analyses, or critiques of events that occurred in the past. They are first-hand information. For a more detailed description of what a primary source is, where you can access them, and why you need to use them, see this article about primary sources .

Secondary sources are summaries, critiques, opinions, and analyses. They are written by people who did not witness, or have any direct part to play in the event they are describing. The information they contain is based on primary sources, and is the author’s interpretation of the event/subject they are covering. See this article about secondary sources for further information.

Some examples of primary sources are: Poems, diaries, letters, paintings, government records, maps, interviews (transcribed or recorded), photographs, newspaper articles, results of experiments, case studies, results of clinical trials, minutes of meetings, and proceedings of conferences

Some examples of secondary sources are: Biographies, histories, reviews, encyclopaedias, literary criticism, discussions of importance, analysis of clinical trials, and reviews of results.

The one main difference between primary and secondary sources is that primary sources are contemporary and secondary sources are not.

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Primary Vs Secondary Source – Which to Use?

Published by Owen Ingram at August 21st, 2023 , Revised On August 21, 2023

When researching or exploring a new topic, the distinction between primary and secondary sources is paramount. The relevance, validity and reliability  of the information you gather will heavily depend on the type of source you consult. 

Let’s discuss the difference between primary and secondary sources. 

What is a Primary Source?

Primary source s offer first-hand accounts or direct evidence of the events, objects, people, or works of art they represent. These sources are often created by witnesses or first recorders of these events when they occurred or even later. 

Some examples of primary sources include:

• Original Documents: Diaries, letters, manuscripts, autobiographies, interview transcripts.
• Artefacts: Clothing, tools, works of art, architectural structures.
• Official Records: Census data, marriage certificates, birth certificates.
• Photographs & Audio-Visual Materials: Photographs, films, audio recordings, video recordings.
• Raw Data: Original research data and laboratory notes.
• Oral Histories: Interviews, oral reports, and personal storytelling.
• Contemporary Newspapers, Magazines, or Reports: From the time period in question.

Advantages of Primary Sources

• Authenticity: Primary sourc es provide direct evidence or first-hand account of an event, making them highly authentic.
• Depth and Detail: They offer in-depth insights, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the subject.
• Original Perspective: They reflect the personal perspective of the original author or the direct observer, allowing a closer connection to the events or phenomena.

Limitations of Primary Sources

• Potential Bias: Primary sources may carry the creator’s cognitive bias or explicit bias , which could impact their accuracy.
• Time-Consuming: Analysing and interpreting primary sources can be time-intensive.
• Limited Scope: Due to an actor-observer bias , they may not provide a broader context or interpretation of the events.

What is a Secondary Source?

Secondary source s analyse, interpret, or summarise information from primary sources. They offer a second-hand account and often provide context, interpretation, or a broader topic overview. The challenge here is to be wary of confirmation bias that can inadvertently influence these interpretations.

Examples of secondary sources include:

• Books: Often scholarly source books that interpret or analyse a topic or event.
• Articles: Journal or magazine articles that provide commentary, criticism, or analysis.
• Biographies: Life stories of individuals, which are interpretive accounts.
• Documentaries: Films that interpret or analyse historical events or figures.
• Encyclopedias & Reference Works: Summarised information on topics.
• Reviews: Literature reviews , Critiques of books, films, art, and other works.
• Essays & Critiques: Where the author analyses or comments on someone else’s work.

Advantages of Secondary Sources

• Comprehensive Overview: Secondary sources usually present a broader topic overview, providing context.
• Time-Efficiency: They summarise and interpret vast amounts of primary data, making it easier for the researcher, especially if they have a bias for action .
• Expert Analysis: Many secondary sources are produced by experts, offering informed and scholarly interpretations of primary information.

Limitations of Secondary Sources

• Potential for Misinterpretation: As these sources provide an interpretation, there’s a risk of publication bias or the Pygmalion effect influencing their perspectives.
• Possible Bias: The authors of secondary sources might introduce their own affinity bias , influencing the interpretation.
• Not as Current: Secondary interpretations might not reflect the latest findings or recent changes in understanding.

What is the Difference Between Primary and Secondary Sources?

How to Tell if a Source is Primary or Secondary

Telling if a source is primary or secondary can be pivotal in many types of research. When doing this differentiation, a good source evaluation method is indispensable.

Here is a guide to help you differentiate:

Primary Sources

Characteristics.

• Original Materials: Uninterpreted, unfiltered records of a time, event, people, or work.
• First-hand Information: It is directly from the person(s) involved or who directly witnessed an event.
• Unaltered State: Usually not changed or altered after their creation, unless they have been annotated or transcribed.
• Period: Typically from the time of the event or shortly thereafter.
• Autobiographies and memoirs
• Diaries, letters, emails, and other correspondence
• Photographs, audio recordings, and videos
• Raw research data
• Original hand-written manuscripts
• Official documents (birth certificates, trial transcripts)
• Artefacts, such as clothing, tools, or weapons
• Interviews, surveys, or fieldwork
• Newspapers and magazine articles written at the time of an event

Questions to Ask:

• Was this source created by someone directly involved in the events I’m researching?
• Was it created at the time of the event or shortly thereafter?
• Does it provide first-hand testimony or direct evidence concerning my topic?

Secondary Sources:

• Interpretation/Analysis: These sources discuss, interpret, analyse, consolidate, or “repackage” primary sources.
• Second-hand Information: It is one step removed from the primary original source.
• Summary/Overview: Often summarises or provides an overview of a topic based on primary sources.
• Books discussing a subject or historical event
• Journal articles reviewing past research
• Histories or documentaries
• Commentaries or critiques
• Encyclopedias or biographical works

Questions to Ask

• Does this source reinterpret or evaluate primary source materials?
• Was it created significantly after the events being discussed?
• Does it summarise or repackage information from other sources?

Remember, the distinction is not always clear-cut. Depending on the research question and context, some sources can function as both primary and secondary. For instance, a newspaper article can be a primary source when studying media portrayal of events at the time, but a secondary source is used for a historical overview. Always consider the nature of your research and the purpose of using the source.

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Primary Vs Secondary Sources: Which is Better?

Whether primary or secondary sources are “better” is subjective and depends on the context and purpose of your research or inquiry. Both types of sources have their strengths and weaknesses. Here’s a breakdown:

For a Comprehensive Understanding

Using a combination of both primary and secondary sources is ideal. Secondary sources can provide context, while primary sources offer a direct window into events or experiences.

For Academic or Historical Research

Primary sources are often valued because they provide direct evidence and can help researchers verify facts or understand first-hand accounts. However, secondary sources are crucial for understanding the broader context, historical interpretations, and trends.

For Quick Learning or an Overview

If you are just trying to grasp a topic or need a summary, secondary sources are often more accessible and straightforward due to the ceiling effect , which means reaching a limit in the amount of new information a source can provide.

Frequently Asked Questions 

What is a primary source vs a secondary.

A primary source is direct or first-hand evidence about an event, person, object, or work of art, often created during the event. A secondary source interprets, analyses, or summarises information from primary sources, offering a second-hand account or perspective on the original data.

Is an interview a primary vs secondary source?

An interview is a primary source because it provides first-hand testimony or direct evidence concerning a topic under investigation. It captures the interviewee’s direct experiences, views, or knowledge without being filtered, interpreted, or summarised by others, offering an original perspective on the discussed subject.

What is considered primary source vs secondary source in citations?

In citations, a primary source refers to direct or first-hand evidence, like original documents, artworks, or interviews. A secondary source, on the other hand, analyses, interprets or summarises primary sources, such as books that critique literature or articles that review original research. Secondary sources provide context or interpretation to primary data.

How to cite a primary source?

To cite a primary source, follow the citation style guide you’re using (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago). Generally, include the author’s name, title of the source, publication or creation date, and any relevant details (e.g., publisher, location, page numbers). Different source types (letters, interviews, documents) might require specific citation elements.

Is a textbook a secondary source?

Yes, a textbook is typically considered a secondary source. It synthesises, interprets, and summarises information from primary and secondary sources, presenting an overview or comprehensive topic explanation. Textbooks provide context, commentary, and analysis rather than direct, first-hand evidence of events or original research.

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Information literacy is more than just the ability to find information; it encompasses the skills to recognise when information is needed and the competence to locate, evaluate, use, and ethically disseminate it.

Scholarly sources, also known as academic sources, refer to materials created to meet the standards and expectations of the academic community.

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Primary Sources: A Research Guide

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Primary Sources

Texts of laws and other original documents.

Newspaper reports, by reporters who witnessed an event or who quote people who did.

Speeches, diaries, letters and interviews - what the people involved said or wrote.

Original research.

Datasets, survey data, such as census or economic statistics.

Photographs, video, or audio that capture an event.

Secondary Sources

Secondary Sources are one step removed from primary sources, though they often quote or otherwise use primary sources. They can cover the same topic, but add a layer of interpretation and analysis. Secondary sources can include:

Most books about a topic.

Analysis or interpretation of data.

Scholarly or other articles about a topic, especially by people not directly involved.

Documentaries (though they often include photos or video portions that can be considered primary sources).

When is a Primary Source a Secondary Source?

Whether something is a primary or secondary source often depends upon the topic and its use.

A biology textbook would be considered a secondary source if in the field of biology, since it describes and interprets the science but makes no original contribution to it.

On the other hand, if the topic is science education and the history of textbooks, textbooks could be used a primary sources to look at how they have changed over time.

Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources

Adapted from Bowling Green State University, Library User Education, Primary vs. Secondary Sources .

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Secondary Research: Definition, Methods, Sources, Examples, and More

Table of Contents

What is Secondary Research? Secondary Research Meaning

Secondary research involves the analysis and synthesis of existing data and information that has been previously collected and published by others. This method contrasts with primary research , which entails the direct collection of original data from sources like surveys, interviews, and ethnographic studies.

The essence of secondary research lies in its efficiency and accessibility. Researchers who leverage secondary sources, including books, scholarly articles, government reports, and market analyses, gather valuable insights without the need for time-consuming and costly data collection efforts. This approach is particularly vital in marketing research, where understanding broad market trends and consumer behaviors is essential, yet often constrained by budgets and timelines. Secondary research serves as a fundamental step in the research process, providing a solid foundation upon which additional, targeted research can be built.

Secondary research enables researchers to quickly grasp the landscape of existing knowledge, identify gaps in the literature, and refine their research questions or business strategies accordingly. In marketing research, for instance, secondary research aids in understanding competitive landscapes, identifying market trends, and benchmarking against industry standards, thereby guiding strategic decision-making.

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When to Use Secondary Research

Choosing between secondary and primary research methods depends significantly on the objectives of your study or project. Secondary research is particularly beneficial in the initial stages of research planning and strategy, offering a broad understanding of the topic at hand and helping to pinpoint areas that may require more in-depth investigation through primary methods.

In academic contexts, secondary research is often used to build a theoretical foundation for a study, allowing researchers to position their work within the existing body of knowledge. Professionally, it serves as a cost-effective way to inform business strategies, market analyses, and policy development, providing insights into industry trends, consumer behaviors, and competitive landscapes.

Combining secondary research with primary research methods enhances the comprehensiveness and validity of research findings. For example, secondary research might reveal general trends in consumer behavior, while subsequent primary research could delve into specific consumer motivations and preferences, offering a more nuanced understanding of the market.

Key considerations for integrating secondary research into your research planning and strategy include:

• Research Objectives : Clearly defining what you aim to discover or decide based on your research.
• Availability of Data : Assessing the extent and relevance of existing data related to your research question.
• Budget and Time Constraints : Considering the resources available for conducting research, including time, money, and personnel.
• Research Scope : Determining the breadth and depth of the information needed to meet your research objectives.

Secondary research is a powerful tool when used strategically, providing a cost-effective, efficient way to gather insights and inform decision-making processes across academic and professional contexts.

How to Conduct Secondary Research

Conducting secondary research is a systematic process that involves several key steps to ensure the relevance, accuracy, and utility of the information gathered. Here's a step-by-step guide to effective secondary research:

• Identifying Research Objectives, Topics, and Questions : Begin with a clear understanding of what you aim to achieve with your research. This includes defining your research objectives, topics, and specific questions you seek to answer. This clarity guides the entire research process, ensuring that you remain focused on relevant information.
• Finding Relevant Data Sources : Search for secondary data sources that are likely to contain the information you need. This involves exploring a variety of sources such as academic journals, industry reports, government databases, and news archives. Prioritize sources known for their credibility and authority in the subject matter.
• Collecting and Verifying Existing Data : Once you've identified potential sources, collect the data that pertains to your research questions. Pay close attention to the publication date, authorship, and the methodology used in collecting the original data to ensure its relevance and reliability.
• Data Compilation and Analysis : Compile the collected data in a structured format that allows for analysis. Employ analytical methods suited to your research objectives, such as trend analysis, comparative analysis, or thematic analysis, to draw insights from the data.

The success of secondary research hinges on the critical evaluation of sources for their credibility, relevance, and timeliness. It's essential to approach this process with a discerning eye, acknowledging the limitations of secondary data and the potential need for further investigation through primary research.

Types of Secondary Research Methods with Examples

Secondary research methods offer a range of approaches for leveraging existing data, each providing value in extracting insights relevant to various business and academic needs. Understanding the unique advantages of each method can guide researchers in choosing the most appropriate approach for their specific objectives.

Literature Reviews

Literature reviews synthesize existing research and publications to identify trends, gaps, and consensus within a field of study. This method provides a comprehensive overview of what is already known about a topic, saving time and resources by building on existing knowledge rather than starting from scratch.

Real-World Example : A marketing firm conducting a literature review on consumer behavior in the digital age might uncover a trend towards increased mobile shopping. This insight leads to a strategic recommendation for a retail client to prioritize mobile app development and optimize their online store for mobile users, directly impacting the client's digital marketing strategy.

Data Mining

Data mining involves analyzing large sets of data to discover patterns, correlations, or trends that are not immediately apparent. This method can uncover hidden insights from the data that businesses can use to inform decision-making, such as identifying new market opportunities or optimizing operational efficiencies.

Real-World Example : Through data mining of customer purchase histories and online behavior data, a retail company identifies a previously unnoticed correlation between the purchase of certain products and the time of year. Utilizing this insight, the company adjusts its inventory levels and marketing campaigns seasonally, significantly boosting sales and customer satisfaction.

Meta-Analysis

Meta-analysis aggregates and systematically analyzes results from multiple studies to draw general conclusions about a research question. This method provides a high level of evidence by combining findings, offering a powerful tool for making informed decisions based on a broader range of data than any single study could provide.

Real-World Example : A pharmaceutical company uses meta-analysis to combine findings from various clinical trials of a new drug. The meta-analysis reveals a statistically significant benefit of the drug that was not conclusive in individual studies. This insight supports the company's application for regulatory approval and guides the development of marketing strategies targeting specific patient demographics.

Data Analysis

Secondary data analysis applies statistical techniques to analyze existing datasets, offering a cost-effective way to gain insights without the need for new data collection. This method can identify trends, patterns, and relationships that inform strategic planning and decision-making.

Real-World Example : An investment firm analyzes historical economic data and stock market trends using secondary data analysis. They identify a recurring pattern preceding market downturns. By applying this insight to their investment strategy, the firm successfully mitigates risk and enhances portfolio performance for their clients.

Content Analysis

Content analysis systematically examines the content of communication mediums to understand messages, themes, or biases . This qualitative method can reveal insights into public opinion, media representation, and communication strategies, offering valuable information for marketing, public relations, and media strategies.

Real-World Example : A technology company employs content analysis to review online customer reviews and social media mentions of its products. The analysis uncovers a common concern among customers about the usability of a product feature. Responding to this insight, the company revises its product design and launches a targeted communication campaign to address the concerns, improving customer satisfaction and brand perception.

Historical Research

Historical research examines past records and documents to understand historical contexts and trends, offering insights that can inform future predictions, strategy development, and understanding of long-term changes. This method is particularly valuable for understanding the evolution of markets, industries, or consumer behaviors over time.

Real-World Example : A consultancy specializing in sustainable business practices conducts historical research into the adoption of green technologies in the automotive industry. The research identifies key drivers and barriers to adoption over the decades. Leveraging these insights, the consultancy advises new green tech startups on strategies to overcome market resistance and capitalize on drivers of adoption, significantly impacting their market entry strategy.

Each of these secondary research methods provides distinct advantages and can yield valuable insights for businesses and researchers. By carefully selecting and applying the most suitable method(s), organizations can enhance their understanding of complex issues, inform strategic decisions, and achieve competitive advantage.

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Examples of Secondary Sources in Research

Secondary sources are crucial for researchers across disciplines, offering a wealth of information that can provide insights, support hypotheses, and inform strategies. Understanding the unique value of different types of secondary sources can help researchers effectively harness this wealth of information. Below, we explore various secondary sources, highlighting their unique contributions and providing real-world examples of how they can yield valuable business insights.

Books provide comprehensive coverage of a topic, offering depth and context that shorter pieces might miss. They are particularly useful for gaining a thorough understanding of a subject's historical background and theoretical framework.

Example : A corporation exploring the feasibility of entering a new international market utilizes books on the country's cultural and economic history. This deep dive helps the company understand market nuances, leading to a tailored market entry strategy that aligns with local consumer preferences and cultural norms.

Scholarly Journals

Scholarly journals offer peer-reviewed, cutting-edge research findings, making them invaluable for staying abreast of the latest developments in a field. They provide detailed methodologies, rigorous data analysis, and discussions of findings in a specific area of study.

Example : An investment firm relies on scholarly articles to understand recent advancements in financial technology. Discovering research on blockchain's impact on transaction security and efficiency, the firm decides to invest in fintech startups specializing in blockchain technology, positioning itself ahead in the market.

Government Reports

Government reports deliver authoritative data on a wide range of topics, including economic indicators, demographic trends, and regulatory guidelines. Their reliability and the breadth of topics covered make them an essential resource for informed decision-making.

Example : A healthcare provider examines government health reports to identify trends in public health issues. Spotting an increase in lifestyle-related diseases, the provider expands its wellness programs, directly addressing the growing demand for preventive care services.

Market Research Reports

Market research reports provide insights into industry trends, consumer behavior, and competitive landscapes. These reports are invaluable for making informed business decisions, from product development to marketing strategies.

Example : A consumer goods company reviews market research reports to analyze trends in eco-friendly packaging. Learning about the positive consumer response to sustainable packaging, the company redesigns its packaging to be more environmentally friendly, resulting in increased brand loyalty and market share.

White Papers

White papers offer in-depth analysis or arguments on specific issues, often highlighting solutions or innovations. They are a key resource for understanding complex problems, technological advancements, and industry best practices.

Example : A technology firm exploring the implementation of AI in customer service operations consults white papers on AI applications. Insights from these papers guide the development of an AI-powered customer service chatbot, enhancing efficiency and customer satisfaction.

Private Company Data

Data from private companies, such as annual reports or case studies, provides insight into business strategies, performance metrics, and operational challenges. This information can be instrumental in benchmarking and strategic planning.

Example : By analyzing competitor annual reports, a retail chain identifies a gap in the market for affordable luxury products. This insight leads to the launch of a new product line that successfully captures this underserved segment, boosting the company's revenue and market positioning.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Research

Secondary research offers a foundation upon which organizations can build their knowledge base, informing everything from strategic planning to day-to-day decision-making. However, like any method, it comes with its own set of advantages and disadvantages. Understanding these can help researchers and businesses make the most of secondary research while being mindful of its limitations.

Advantages of Secondary Research

• Cost-Effectiveness : Secondary research is often less expensive than primary research, as it involves the analysis of existing data, eliminating the need for costly data collection processes like surveys or experiments.
• Time Efficiency : Accessing and analyzing existing data is generally faster than conducting primary research, allowing organizations to make timely decisions based on available information.
• Broad Scope of Data : Secondary research provides access to a wide range of data across different geographies and time periods, enabling comprehensive market analyses and trend identification.
• Basis for Primary Research : It can serve as a preliminary step to identify gaps in existing research, helping to pinpoint areas where primary research is needed.

Disadvantages of Secondary Research

• Relevance and Specificity : Existing data may not perfectly align with the current research objectives, leading to potential mismatches in relevance and specificity.
• Data Quality and Accuracy : The quality and accuracy of secondary data can vary, depending on the source. Researchers must critically assess the credibility of their sources to ensure the reliability of their findings.
• Timeliness : Data may be outdated, especially in fast-moving sectors where recent information is crucial for making informed decisions.
• Limited Control Over Data : Researchers have no control over how data was collected and processed, which may affect its suitability for their specific research needs.

Secondary research, when approached with an understanding of its strengths and weaknesses, has the potential be a powerful tool. By effectively navigating its advantages and limitations, businesses can lay a solid foundation for informed decision-making and strategic planning.

Primary vs. Secondary Research: A Comparative Analysis

When undertaking a research project, understanding the distinction between primary and secondary research is pivotal. Both forms of research serve their own purposes and can complement each other in providing a comprehensive overview of a given topic.

What is Primary Research?

Primary research involves the collection of original data directly from sources. This method is firsthand and is specific to the researcher's questions or hypotheses.

The main advantage of primary research is its specificity and relevancy to the particular issue or question at hand. It offers up-to-date and highly relevant data that is directly applicable to the research objectives.

Example : A company planning to launch a new beverage product conducts focus groups and survey research to understand consumer preferences. Through this process, they gather firsthand insights on flavors, packaging, and pricing preferences specific to their target market.

What is Secondary Research?

Secondary research involves the analysis of existing information compiled and collected by others. It includes studies, reports, and data from government agencies, trade associations, and other organizations.

Secondary research provides a broad understanding of the topic at hand, offering insights that can help frame primary research. It is cost-effective and time-saving, as it leverages already available data.

Example : The same company explores industry reports, academic research, and market analyses to understand broader market trends, competitor strategies, and consumer behavior within the beverage industry.

Comparative Analysis

Synergistic Use in Research

The most effective research strategies often involve a blend of both primary and secondary research. Secondary research can serve as a foundation, helping to inform the development of primary research by identifying gaps in existing knowledge and refining research questions.

Understanding the distinct roles and benefits of primary and secondary research is crucial for any successful research project. By effectively leveraging both types of research, researchers can gain a deeper, more nuanced understanding of their subject matter, leading to more informed decisions and strategies. Remember, the choice between primary and secondary research should be guided by your research objectives, resources, and the specificity of information required.

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English: Primary vs. Secondary

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How do you know if a scholarly article is primary?

A primary research article  reports on an empirical research study conducted by the authors . It is almost always published in a peer-reviewed journal.

This type of article:

• Asks a research question or states a hypothesis or hypotheses
• Identifies a research population
• Describes a specific research method
• Tests or measures something
• Includes a section called "method" or "methodology." This may only appear in the article, not the abstract.
• Includes a section called "results."

Words to look for as clues include: analysis, study, investigation, examination, experiment, numbers of people or objects analyzed, content analysis, or surveys.

Primary Sources

Primary sources  are original records created at the time historical events occurred or well after events in the form of memoirs or oral histories.

Examples of primary sources include diaries, speeches, letters, memos, manuscripts, and other papers; memoirs and autobiographies; records of information collected by government agencies and organizations; published materials (books, magazine and journal articles, newspaper articles) written at the time; photographs, audio recordings, and moving pictures or video recordings; research data; and objects or artifacts. 

Some examples of types and formats for primary sources include:

• Books  such as personal narratives, memoirs, and autobiographies, collected works, and collections of documents (these may be edited and published after the historical event or time period)
• Journal and magazine articles  
• Newspaper articles  
• Government documents
• Archival sources  such as diaries, interviews, letters, memos, manuscripts, and other papers and records of organizations
• Multimedia sources  such as photographs, audio recordings, and motion pictures or video recording

Primary Sources Vary by Discipline

Primary sources vary by discipline.

In history , primary sources are original records that provide firsthand evidence to understand a historical event or period.  

In literature , pri mary sources are the original texts (e.g., novels, short stories, plays, etc.).  

In the arts , primary sources are original works of art or music.  

In the natural or social sciences , the results of an experiment or study are typically found in scholarly articles or conference papers; these articles and papers that present original results are considered primary sources.

Primary v Secondary Research

Journals, magazines, and newspapers are serial publications that are published on an ongoing basis.

Many scholarly journals in the sciences and social sciences include primary source articles where the authors report on research they have undertaken. Consequently, these papers may use the first person ("We observed…"). These articles usually follow a standard format with sections like "Methods," "Results," and "Conclusion."

In the humanities , age is an important factor in determining whether an article is a primary or secondary source. A recently-published journal or newspaper article on the  Brown v. Board of Education  Supreme Court case would be read as a secondary source, because the author is interpreting an historical event. An article on the case that was published in 1955 could be read as a primary source that reveals how writers were interpreting the decision immediately after it was handed down.

Serials may also include book reviews, editorials, and review articles. Review articles summarize research on a particular topic, but they do not present any new findings; therefore, they are considered secondary sources. Their bibliographies, however, can be used to identify primary sources.

Original Articles vs Review Articles

It can be difficult to tell the difference between original research articles and review articles. You can use this chart to help you.

You can also read the article abstract for clues. If you see phrases such as "we tested"  and "in our study, we measured", it will tell you that the article is reporting on original research.

So, what is it?

Identifying primary & secondary sources.

When looking at a resource to determine whether it is primary or secondary, words that describe the action of the author can be helpful. For example,  words like these can indicate actual research carried out:

• experimented
• investigated

In secondary resources, since the focus is on analyzing or discussion of a primary source, you would look for words that describe the action of the author indicating that this is an analysis or discussion, such as:

• reported on

You will need to examine the abstract and/or the article to determine if the resource is primary or secondary. While the words above can help indicate the type of resource, this is not a cut and dried process where if you see a particular word, that means the resource is  always  primary.

Locating a findings section in an article doesn't mean the source is either primary or secondary. Check to see whether the authors did the research themselves, or whether they analyzed research done by others.

https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/library/evaluating/sources

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources  are any published or unpublished works that are a step removed from original sources, usually describing, summarizing, analyzing, evaluating, derived from, or based on primary sources.  

Some examples of secondary sources are: histories about a topic, works of criticism and interpretation, monographs, textbooks, biographies, dictionaries and encyclopedias, handbooks and manuals, bibliographies, and directories. 

Primary, Secondary, Peer Review

Primary v. secondary sources.

A question to ask yourself when trying to identify primary or secondary sources is:

Did the person writing the thing do the thing?

While this may sound odd, the best indicator that something is a primary source is if the author of the piece actually  DID  the work that led to the creation of the resource.

These are some other things to consider with primary and secondary sources.

• Primary and secondary sources can be different publication types. Articles can be primary or secondary, just as books can be.
• Primary and secondary sources are not related to peer review in any way. Peer-reviewed articles can be either primary or secondary sources.
• There is no perfect database limiter for primary or secondary, either. There are no check boxes like there are with with peer review.
• Primary and secondary sources don't self identify as such. Nowhere in a primary source will it say, "this is a primary source." You need to evaluate the resource to figure it out.
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Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary Sources

• Source Types
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• Examples by Discipline

What are secondary sources?

Secondary sources depend upon primary sources. Secondary sources describe, discuss, interpret, comment upon, analyze, evaluate, summarize, and process primary sources. The important thing to keep in mind when trying to decide if a source is primary or secondary is whether or not the author did the thing they are reporting on. If they did, it is a primary source; if they did not, it is a secondary source.

What is the role of secondary sources in research?

Secondary sources represent the scholarly conversation that has taken place, or is currently taking place, on a given topic. Thus, it is imperative that researchers acquire a comprehensive knowledge of the secondary literature on their topic to be able to then engage with it and offer their own perspective through their writing. Scholars show their deep knowledge of their topic by demonstrating in their writing their awareness of secondary literature. Research that does not include substantial references to both primary and secondary sources is not likely to be authoritative or reliable. For that reason, looking at the listed references in a piece of research can help you determine its value.

What are some examples of secondary sources?

Like primary sources, secondary sources can be lots of different kinds of resources depending on discipline and application. Secondary sources can be:

• Journal articles
• Monographs (books written on a single subject)
• Newspaper or magazine articles
• Book or movie reviews 

In the sciences, secondary sources tend to be things like literature reviews (synthesized descriptions of previous scholarship on a topic), systematic reviews (overviews of primary sources on a topic), or meta analyses (studies in which conclusions are drawn from consideration of systematic reviews).

In the humanities, secondary sources tend to be journal articles that discuss or evaluate someone else's research, monographs, or reviews. 

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• Types of Sources Explained | Examples & Tips

Types of Sources Explained | Examples & Tips

Published on May 19, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on May 31, 2023.

Throughout the research process , you’ll likely use various types of sources . The source types commonly used in academic writing include:

Academic journals

• Encyclopedias

Table of contents

Primary, secondary, and tertiary sources, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about types of sources.

Academic journals are the most up-to-date sources in academia. They’re typically published multiple times a year and contain cutting-edge research. Consult academic journals to find the most current debates and research topics in your field.

There are many kinds of journal articles, including:

• Original research articles: These publish original data ( primary sources )
• Theoretical articles: These contribute to the theoretical foundations of a field.
• Review articles: These summarize the current state of the field.

Credible journals use peer review . This means that experts in the field assess the quality and credibility of an article before it is published. Journal articles include a full bibliography and use scholarly or technical language.

Academic journals are usually published online, and sometimes also in print. Consult your institution’s library to find out what academic journals they provide access to.

  Learn how to cite a journal article

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Academic books are great sources to use when you need in-depth information on your research or dissertation topic .

They’re typically written by experts and provide an extensive overview and analysis of a specific topic. They can be written by a single author or by multiple authors contributing individual chapters (often overseen by a general editor).

Books published by respected academic publishing houses and university presses are typically considered trustworthy sources. Academic books usually include a full bibliography and use scholarly or technical language. Books written for more general audiences are less relevant in an academic context.

Books can be accessed online or in print. Your institution’s library will likely contain access to a wide selection of each.

Learn how to cite a book

Websites are great sources for preliminary research and can help you to learn more about a topic you’re new to.

However, they are not always credible sources . Many websites don’t provide the author’s name, so it can be hard to tell if they’re an expert. Websites often don’t cite their sources, and they typically don’t subject their content to peer review.

For these reasons, you should carefully consider whether any web sources you use are appropriate to cite or not. Some websites are more credible than others. Look for DOIs or trusted domain extensions:

• URLs that end with .edu are specifically educational resources.
• URLs that end with .gov are government-related

Both of these are typically considered trustworthy.

Learn how to cite a website

Newspapers can be valuable sources, providing insights on current or past events and trends.

However, news articles are not always reliable and may be written from a biased perspective or with the intention of promoting a political agenda. News articles usually do not cite their sources and are written for a popular, rather than academic, audience.

Nevertheless, newspapers can help when you need information on recent topics or events that have not been the subject of in-depth academic study. Archives of older newspapers can also be useful sources for historical research.

Newspapers are published in both digital and print form. Consult your institution’s library to find out what newspaper archives they provide access to.

Learn how to cite a newspaper article

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Encyclopedias are reference works that contain summaries or overviews of topics rather than original insights. These overviews are presented in alphabetical order.

Although they’re often written by experts, encyclopedia entries are not typically attributed to a single author and don’t provide the specialized knowledge expected of scholarly sources. As a result, they’re best used as sources of background information at the beginning of your research. You can then expand your knowledge by consulting more academic sources.

Encyclopedias can be general or subject-specific:

• General encyclopedias contain entries on diverse topics.
• Subject encyclopedias focus on a particular field and contain entries specific to that field (e.g., Western philosophy or molecular biology).

They can be found online (including crowdsourced encyclopedias like Wikipedia) or in print form.

Learn how to cite Wikipedia

Every source you use will be either a:

• Primary source : The source provides direct evidence about your topic (e.g., a news article).
• Secondary source : The source provides an interpretation or commentary on primary sources (e.g., a journal article).
• Tertiary source : The source summarizes or consolidates primary and secondary sources but does not provide additional analysis or insights (e.g., an encyclopedia).

Tertiary sources are often used for broad overviews at the beginning of a research project. Further along, you might look for primary and secondary sources that you can use to help formulate your position.

How each source is categorized depends on the topic of research and how you use the source.

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• ChatGPT vs human editor
• ChatGPT citations
• Is ChatGPT trustworthy?
• Using ChatGPT for your studies
• What is ChatGPT?
• Chicago style
• Paraphrasing

 Plagiarism

• Types of plagiarism
• Self-plagiarism
• Avoiding plagiarism
• Academic integrity
• Consequences of plagiarism
• Common knowledge

There are many types of sources commonly used in research. These include:

• Journal articles

You’ll likely use a variety of these sources throughout the research process , and the kinds of sources you use will depend on your research topic and goals.

Scholarly sources are written by experts in their field and are typically subjected to peer review . They are intended for a scholarly audience, include a full bibliography, and use scholarly or technical language. For these reasons, they are typically considered credible sources .

Popular sources like magazines and news articles are typically written by journalists. These types of sources usually don’t include a bibliography and are written for a popular, rather than academic, audience. They are not always reliable and may be written from a biased or uninformed perspective, but they can still be cited in some contexts.

In academic writing, the sources you cite should be credible and scholarly. Some of the main types of sources used are:

• Academic journals: These are the most up-to-date sources in academia. They are published more frequently than books and provide cutting-edge research.
• Books: These are great sources to use, as they are typically written by experts and provide an extensive overview and analysis of a specific topic.

It is important to find credible sources and use those that you can be sure are sufficiently scholarly .

• Consult your institute’s library to find out what books, journals, research databases, and other types of sources they provide access to.
• Look for books published by respected academic publishing houses and university presses, as these are typically considered trustworthy sources.
• Look for journals that use a peer review process. This means that experts in the field assess the quality and credibility of an article before it is published.

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Secondary Sources: ALRs, Encyclopedias, Law Reviews, Restatements, & Treatises

Legal encyclopedias, law review articles, american law reports, restatement drafts, getting help, introduction.

Secondary sources are a great place to begin your research . Although the primary sources of law--case law, statutes, and regulations--establish the law on a given topic, it is often difficult to quickly locate answers in them. Secondary sources often explain legal principles more thoroughly than a single case or statute, so using them can help you save time . Secondary sources also help you avoid unnecessary research, since you're tapping into work that someone else has already done on an issue.

Secondary sources include:

• Legal encyclopedias
• American Law Reports (ALR)
• Law review articles

Restatements

Secondary sources are particularly useful for:

• Learning the basics of a particular area of law
• Understanding key terms of art in an area
• Identifying essential cases and statutes

This guide provides a basic overview of each source, including their strengths and why you might use them, as well as tips on finding, using, and citing them.

This guide is based on material written by Deanna Barmakian.

This guide is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 United States License .

You may reproduce any part of it for noncommercial purposes as long as credit is included and it is shared in the same manner. 

Intro to Legal Encyclopedias

Legal encyclopedias contain brief, broad summaries of legal topics, providing introductions to legal topics and explaining relevant terms of art.They also provide citations to relevant primary law and sometimes give citations to relevant major law review articles.

There are two main legal encyclopedias in the United States that are national in scope. They are useful, but not well-suited for jurisdiction specific research.

State legal encyclopedias provide background and explanations of state legal topics. Not every state has a legal encyclopedia. Depth of coverage and quality vary. State encyclopedia articles are updated irregularly.

Electronic versions of the encyclopedias are updated directly. If using a print encyclopedia, always remember to check the pocket parts for any updates.

National Legal Encyclopedias

• American Jurisprudence 2d (AmJur) Reading Room KF 154.A42 Am Jur 2d articles summarize broad principles of U.S. law and provide citations to cases, statutes, rules, forms, and A.L.R. annotations. A six-volume general index is located at KF 154.A42. Topical indexes are located in the last volume of every topic.
• American Jurisprudence Available on Lexis
• American Jurisprudence on Westlaw
• Corpus Juris Secundum (CJS) Reading Room KF 154.C56 This 152-volume set is arranged into approximately 400 topics. Articles within topics begin with a general rule of law and are followed by the exceptions and qualifications to that general rule. A four-volume general index is located at KF 154.C56. There are also individual indexes for each major topic.
• Corpus Juris Secundum on Westlaw CJS is not available on Lexis.

State Legal Encyclopedias

Legal encyclopedias are listed alphabetically by state. Electronic versions are included only if they are comprehensive in scope.

For a few states, Westlaw offers a practice series that contains selective coverage of state law, usually covering a few major topics and information useful to litigators. To find them, browse the Westlaw directory by U.S. State Materials > Other U.S. States > State name >  Forms, Treatises, CLEs, and Other Practice Materials, then browse the page for "practice series."

• California Jurisprudence 3d Reading Room KFC 80 .C29
• Summary of California Law Reading Room KFC 80 .W5
• California Jurisprudence 3d (Westlaw)
• Summary of California Law (Lexis) Available on Lexis
• Summary of California Law (Westlaw)
• Colorado Law Annotated 2d Reading Room KFC 1880 .P76
• Florida Jurisprudence 2d Reading Room KFF 80 .F56
• Florida Jurisprudence 2d (Lexis) Available on Lexis
• Florida Jurisprudence 2d (Westlaw)
• Georgia Jurisprudence Reading Room KFG 80 .G45
• Georgia Jurisprudence (Westlaw)
• Illinois Law and Practice Reading Room KFI 1265 .I44x
• Illinois Jurisprudence (Lexis) Available on Lexis
• Illinois Law and Practice (Westlaw)
• Indiana Law Encyclopedia Reading Room KFI 3065 .W44
• Indiana Law Encyclopedia (Westlaw)
• Louisiana Civil Law Treatise Reading Room, KFL 92 - 583 (call numbers vary)
• Louisiana Civil Law Treatise (Westlaw)
• Maryland Law Encylopedia Reading Room KFM 1265 .W4x
• Maryland Law Encyclopedia (Westlaw)
• Michigan Law and Practice Encyclopedia Reading Room KFM 4265 .M63x
• Michigan Law and Practice (Lexis) Available on Lexis
• Michigan Civil Jurisprudence (Westlaw)
• Dunnell Minnesota Digest (Lexis) Available on Lexis
• Encyclopedia of Mississippi Law Reading Room KFM 6665 .E53x
• Summary of Mississippi Law Reading Room KRM 6665 .G7
• New Hampshire Practice Reading Room KFN 1280 .N48
• New Jersey Practice Reading Room KFN 1880 .N4
• New Jersey Practice (Westlaw)
• New York Jurisprudence 2d Reading Room KFN 5065 .N48
• New York Jurisprudence 2d (Lexis) Available on Lexis
• New York Jurisprudence 2d (Westlaw)
• Strong's North Carolina Index Reading Room KFN 7445 .6 .S82
• Strong's North Carolina Index (Westlaw)
• Ohio Jurisprudence 3d Reading Room KFO 65 .O35
• Ohio Jurisprudence 3d (Lexis) Available on Lexis
• Ohio Jurisprudence 3d (Westlaw)
• Pennsylvania Law Encyclopedia Reading Room KFP 65 .P46x
• Pennsylvania Law Encyclopedia (Lexis) Available on Lexis
• Summary of Pennsylvania Jurisprudence 2d (Westlaw)
• South Carolina Jurisprudence Reading Room KFS 1865 .S68x
• South Carolina Jurisprudence (Westlaw)
• Tennessee Jurisprudence Reading Room KFT 65 .T46
• Tennessee Jurisprudence (Lexis) Available on Lexis
• Texas Jurisprudence 3d Reading Room KFT 1265 .T49
• Texas Jurisprudence 3d (Lexis) Available on Lexis
• Texas Jurisprudence 3d (Westlaw)
• Michie's Jurisprudence of Virginia and West Virginia Reading Room KFV 2465 .M52
• Michie's Jurisprudence of Virginia and West Virginia (Lexis) Available on Lexis

How to Cite Legal Encyclopedias

See Bluebook B8.15 and Rule 15.8.

Quick example:

17 AM. JUR. 2d Contracts § 74 (1964).

Intro to Treatises

Treatises , not to be confused with treaties , are book-length expositions on the law as it pertains to a particular subject. Treatises may be scholarly in nature, such as Blackstone’s Commentaries on the Law , or they may be geared toward a legal practitioner, such as a manual or handbook.

A legal treatise may be a short, single volume or a large, multivolume set. Many are available electronically as well as in print. Different kinds of treatises have different purposes:

Legal hornbooks are designed as teaching tools for law students. Hornbooks provide more detailed treatments of particular areas of law than an encyclopedia or ALR entry. They generally contain summaries of landmark cases and other useful details.

Nutshells provide an overview of a legal topic without the detailed analysis or extensive case referencing found in other treatises.

Some treatises are designed to serve as practitioners’ tools. These works tend to address realistic legal problems and often provide useful features for practicing lawyers, such as forms and tables.

Looseleaf services are an example of treatises designed to serve as tools for practitioners. Such works address realistic legal problems and often provide useful features for practicing lawyers, such as forms and tables. Looseleaf services are frequently supplemented treatises--hence the looseleaf binder format that enables single pages to be easily updated without republishing the entire volume--that often contain primary legal sources and finding aids in addition to secondary analytical material, making them an invaluable resource if one exists for your topic.

Still other treatises are designed to serve as self-help publications for the public, such as those published by Nolo Press .

Finding treatises

There are several ways to locate legal treatises:

• Use the HLS Library Guide to Legal Treatises by Subject for librarian-recommended treatises in many areas of law
• Do a keyword or subject search in Hollis , Hollis Classic , or another library catalog . Use the expanded search or facets to limit your search to the law school library.
• Ask a research librarian to help you locate treatises on your topic
• Consult reference sources that review treatises by subject such as:

The Legal Information Buyer's Guide and Reference Manual by Ken Svengalis Legal Information: How to Find It, How to Use It by Kent C. Olson (note: this guide does not include single volume works) Legal Looseleafs in Print by Arlene Eis

Using treatises

Using legal treatises is like using any non-law book with a few special advisories.

First, as with any book, use the table of contents and the index to quickly locate relevant sections .

Second, remember that for a publication to provide reliable coverage of contemporary issues, it must be updated regularly and accurately to reflect any changes in the law . Updating may happen through the addition of pocket parts (which are usually tucked in a pocket in the back cover of a volume), by updated pages in a looseleaf, or periodic republication or an entire volume. Researchers should always make sure they are working with the most current edition of the treatise and be sure to consult pocket parts.

Third, while many treatises are still only available in print, more treatises are becoming available online . For example, major treatises on insurance law are available in both Lexis and Westlaw. Electronic versions of treatises allow for full text searching, which can be valuable for research. For more focused search results, consider narrowing your search to relevant sections, if possible. In many cases, you can still access the tables of contents and indexes to help locate chapters or sections of interest.

Remember that you can (and should!) check to see how current the electronic text is by clicking the I link next to the title of the treatise to see how regularly it is updated and when the last update took place.

How to Cite Treatises

See Bluebook Rule 15.

RICHARD H. FALLON, JR. ET AL., HART AND WECHSLER'S THE FEDERAL COURTS AND THE FEDERAL SYSTEM 330 (5th ed. 2003).

Intro to Law Review Articles

Law review or journal articles are another great secondary source for legal research, valuable for the depth in which they analyze and critique legal topics, as well as their extensive references to other sources, including primary sources.

Law reviews are scholarly publications, usually edited by law students in conjunction with faculty members. They contain both lengthy articles and shorter essays by professors and lawyers, as well as comments, notes, or developments in the law written by students. Law review articles often focus on new or emerging areas of law and they can offer more critical commentary than a legal encyclopedia or ALR entry .

Some law reviews are dedicated to a particular topic, such as gender and the law or environmental law, and will include in their contents the proceedings of a wide range of panels and symposia on timely legal issues.

Sources of full text law review articles

These resources all provide comprehensive coverage of United States law reviews, and allow you to search the full text of the articles that they index.

• Bloomberg Law Bloomberg Law is available to all HLS students, faculty, and staff. Register with your HLS email address. Law reviews are included in Bloomberg Law's selection of secondary sources.
• HeinOnline Law Journal Library Database of full text, PDF law review articles; use advanced search to search by topic or search specific titles. HeinOnline is the most comprehensive law review articles database, as coverage begins with the first issue of each journal.
• LexisNexis U.S. Law Reviews and Journals, Combined Combined full text database of United States Law Reviews and Bar Journals. Coverage begins in 1982; regular updates as received from publishers. Lexis also contains databases for Canadian law reviews articles and law review articles by jurisdiction and topic.
• Westlaw Journals & Law Reviews Journals and Law Reviews contains full text documents from law reviews and CLE materials from U.S. and Canadian based publications. Coverage varies by publication with most going back to the 1980s or 1990s.

Indexes to law reviews and journals

These resources only index articles, usually by author, title, keywords, and subject; you will have to find the full text separately. However, they provide additional ways of searching, including taking advantage of subject indexing by expert librarians, and they enable finding material that may not be found in full text databases. In most cases, there will be a link to find the article you desire at Harvard. If we do not own the journal in question, you may request the article via interlibrary loan .

• Current Index to Legal Periodicals A weekly publication by the University of Washington Library, CILP indexes the most recent law review and journal publications by subject as well as provides the tables of contents of the journals indexed. Also available on Westlaw and in print in the reference room at K 33 .C86.
• Index to Foreign Legal Periodicals IFLP indexes legal literature worldwide, covering all forms of foreign law, including comparative law and legal systems, such as Islamic law; socialist law; public and private international law; and transnational commercial law. Although Anglo-American law is not covered, British and American publications concerning foreign law are included. IFLP includes journal articles, congress reports, essay collections, yearbooks and book reviews in all languages. Coverage begins in 1985.
• Index to Legal Periodicals, Retrospective (1908 - 1981) This retrospective database indexes over 750 legal periodicals published in the United States, Canada, Great Britain, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand. Annual surveys of the laws of a jurisdiction, annual surveys of the federal courts, yearbooks, annual institutes, and annual reviews of the work in a given field or on a given topic will also be covered.
• Index to Legal Periodicals and Books (1981 - ) ILP indexes articles in over 800 legal periodicals such as law reviews, bar association journals, yearbooks, institutes, and government publications from August 1981 to the present. In 1994, ILP began indexing legal books and now indexes approximately 2,000 per year. ILP can be searched simultaneously with ILP Retrospective (see next link) through the open database selection area link.

• Index to Canadian Legal Literature (Westlaw) ICLL is a periodical index and bibliography of Canadian legal literature from 1985 to present. ICLL indexes monographs, essays, federal and provincial government publications, publications of law faculties and legal research institutes and associations, including theses, publications from the law societies and associations, legal education materials, and more. Also available in print in the reference room at KE 1 .I532 2001
• Nineteenth Century Masterfile Jones & Chipman's Index to Legal Periodical Literature covers the content of about 235 British legal periodicals and 67 Law Report titles from 1786-1937. Jones & Chipman is available as part of 19th Century Masterfile, a collection of indexes covering 19th century periodicals and newspapers. Also available in print in the Library at Reference K 33 .I53. more... less... Help Searching
• Legal Journals Index (Westlaw) Legal Journals Index provides citations to articles in over 450 legal journals published in the United Kingdom and other European countries from 1986 to the present. The index covers topics pertaining to the laws of the European Union and its member states. Citations include abstracts and links to the full-text of the article and referenced cases when available. Also available in print in the reference room at KD 59 .L44.

Working Paper Repositories

Working papers are an additional source of secondary analysis. They are frequently draft or pre-publication versions of law review articles, though you will also find published versions of articles in these databases. When citing or relying on a draft paper, be sure to carefully check its citations and request the author's permission before citing.

• SSRN Legal Scholarship Network Contains both published and working papers by law faculty, as well as scholars working in the fields of accounting, economics, financial economics, and management. Search by author and by title and abstract keywords. Most papers are available for download in pdf format.
• BePress Legal Repository Contains approximately 3000 articles and papers by law faculty.

How to Cite Law Review and Journal Articles

See Bluebook Rule 16.

Quick example: Paul Butler et. al., Race, Law and Justice: The Rehnquist Court and the American Dilemma, 45 Am. U. L. REV. 567, 569 (1996).

Intro to ALR

American Law Reports (frequently abbreviated and referred to as ALR) contains in-depth articles on narrow topics of the law. ALR articles, called annotations, provide background, analysis, and citations to relevant cases, statutes, law review articles, and other annotations .

ALR is published in series:

• two series under its original title Lawyers Reports Annotated
• eight ALR series, one through six
• two federal series

ALR annotations are not jurisdiction specific. Each annotation contains a Table of Jurisdictions to help you find relevant cases within specific states. In the federal series, the Table of Jurisdictions directs you to cases by circuit.

All ALR series continue to be updated, though not on a regular schedule. When using the set in print, always check the pocket parts for updates. ALR is also available in both Lexis and Westlaw, and the electronic versions incorporate updates into the text. ALR annotations can also be completely superceded by more recent annotations. Electronic versions will provide referrals to the superceding annotations, but in print, you should check the History Table at the end of the ALR Index to verify that your annotation has not been superceded.

Find relevant annotations by using the print indices or searching the ALR databases in Lexis or Westlaw. When using ALR electronically, it is most efficient to look for your terms in the titles of the annotations, since their titles are specific, and reflect their contents.

Finding ALR in print and online

• ALR on Westlaw Contains the full text of the annotations included in the First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, Federal, and Federal Second series of American Law Reports (ALR) and the Index to Annotations covering these series. Because West publishes ALR, this is the most comprehensive electronic version.

• The ALR Index is located in the Reading Room at KF 132.2.I53. It covers annotations written since 1948.
• The ALR Quick Index is located in the Reading Room at KF 132.6.A543. It covers major annotations from the ALR 3d series to the present.

How to Cite ALR Annotations

See Bluebook Rule 16.6.6

William B. Johnson, Annotation, Use of Plea Bargain or Grant of Immunity as Improper Vouching for Credibility of Witness in Federal Cases, 76 A.L.R. FED. 409 (1986).

Intro to Restatements

Restatements are highly regarded distillations of common law . They are prepared by the American Law Institute (ALI), a prestigious organization comprising judges, professors, and lawyers. The ALI's aim is to distill the "black letter law" from cases to indicate trends in common law, and occasionally to recommend what a rule of law should be. In essence, they restate existing common law into a series of principles or rules.

Restatements cover broad topics, such as Contracts or Property. They are organized into chapters, titles, and sections. Sections contain a concisely stated rule of law, comments to clarify the rule, hypothetical examples, explanation of purpose, as well as exceptions to the rule.

Restatements are not primary law. Due to the prestige of the ALI and its painstaking drafting process, however, they are considered persuasive authority by many courts. The most heavily cited Restatements are the Restatement of Torts and the Restatement of Contracts.

The ALI web site contains information regarding Restatement projects, ALI membership, history and institutional processes.

Finding Cases Discussing Restatements

Annotations of cases citing a Restatement section can be found in the Appendix volumes the Restatements in print. There may be one or many Appendix volumes. They are organized by Restatement series, (i.e. citations to the first Restatement, then second, etc.), then by section number. Appendices are not cumulative. The spines indicate sections and years covered. They are updated with pocket parts, cumulative annual supplements, and semiannual pamphlets called Interim Case Citations. The same case annotations are available when using the Restatements on LexisNexis or Westlaw.

You can Shepardize a Restatement section on LexisNexis using the following formats. Note that Bluebook citation format for Restatements, or permutations thereof, will not work.

• torts second sec. 46
• property second (donative transfers) sec 25.9
• conflict of laws second sec. 6
• contracts second sec. 35 cmt. d illus. 7

You can also KeyCite a Restatement section on Westlaw using the following formats. Note that KeyCite finds significantly more citing material than Shepard's for Restatements. (See the KeyCite Publications List for additional help with citation format.)

• rest agen s 1
• rest 2d contr s 3
• rest 2d prop-lt s 1.1
• rest 3d trusts-pir s 170

Current Restatements

Listed below are print editions of the Restatements and their locations in the library. Restatements are also available on both Lexis and Westlaw:

Restatements on LexisNexis Rules (along with comments, illustrations, and notes) are searchable in separate sources from case citations. This makes searching for relevant rules very efficient on LexisNexis. Case citations are linked from individual rules. Browse tables of contents or search by keyword. Restatement drafts are in separate sources from final versions of Restatements. The first series of Restatements is not available on LexisNexis.

Retreiving Restatement sections using Get a Document is not intuitive. Search for restatement in the Get a Document Citation Formats list to determine the proper format.

Restatements on Westlaw All series of Restatements are available on Westlaw. Browse tables of contents or search by keyword. Searching the Restatements on Westlaw can be problematic, because multiple series as well as selected drafts are combined into one database along with case citations to all of them, e.g. Torts first, second, and the topic-specialized Torts third series along with citations to all series are in one database. This can make keyword searching inefficient unless you use a fielded search or use the Table of Contents mode to search within a particular Restatement. Examine your search results carefully to ensure you are looking at the current version of a rule. If a rule has been superceded, there will be note above the rule text indicating this.

Retrieving Restatement sections using Find is somewhat intuitive. The format mimics the database ID. See the listed format for KeyCite below; they will also work for Find. For a complete list of Restatement retrieval formats, search the Find Publications List for restatement. 

• Agency 2d Reading Room KF 1345 .A764
• Agency 3d Reading Room KF 1345 .A764
• Conflict of Laws 2d Reading Room KF 411 .A453
• Contracts 2d Reading Room KF 801 .R47
• Foreign Relations Law of the United States 3d Reading Room KF 4651 .A748x
• Judgments 2d Reading Room KF 8990 .R48
• Law Governing Lawyers 3d Reading Room KF 300 .R47
• Property Reading Room KF 570 .A73
• Property, Donative Transfers 2d Reading Room KF 613 .R47
• Property, Landlord and Tenant 2d Reading Room KF 590 .A84
• Property, Mortgages 3d Reading Room KF 695 .R49
• Property, Servitudes 3d Reading Room KF 656 .R475x
• Property, Wills and Other Donative Transfers 3rd Reading Room KF613 .R479x
• Restitution: Quasi Contracts & Constructive Trusts Reading Room KF 1244 .R46x
• Security Reading Room KF 1050 .A745
• Suretyship and Guaranty 3d Reading Room KF 1045 .R463x
• Torts 2d Reading Room KF 1249 .A4 R47
• Torts, Apportionment of Liability 3d Reading Room KF 1249 .A4 R4774x
• Torts, Liability for Physical and Emotional Harm 3d Reading Room KF1286 .R473x
• Torts, Products Liability 3d Reading Room KF 1296 .R476x
• Trusts 2d Reading Room KF 730 .A8
• Trusts 3d Reading Room KF 730 .R4763x
• Trusts, Prudent Investor Rule 3d Reading Room KF 730 .R4725
• Unfair Competition 3d Reading Room KF 3195 .R475x

Restatements in Draft Status

For more information about the drafting process, see the Restatements Drafts sub-tab.

• Employment Law 3d (discussion draft) Reading Room KF3319 .R473x
• Restitution and Unjust Enrichment 3d (tentative draft) Reading Room KF 1244 .R463x
• Torts, Economic Torts and Related Wrongs 3d This project began in 2010; there are no drafts yet.
• U.S. Law of International Commercial Arbitration 3d

How to Cite Restatements

See Bluebook Rule 12.8.5

RESTATEMENT (THIRD) OF PROP.: DONATIVE  TRANSFERS § 2 (2000).

• Liability for Economic Harm (tentative draft) (Torts 3d)

The Drafting Process

For a short overview of the drafting process for a Restatement, see How the ALI Works .

Parties Involved

• ALI Officers: a group of approximately ten, including the Chair of the Council, President, Vice Presidents, Treasurer, Director, and Deputy Directors
• ALI Council: an elected, standing group of approximately sixty judges, professors, and lawyers
• Reporter: Head of the Restatement project appointed by the ALI Officers and Council, responsible for drafting the language of the Restatement
• Advisers: Group of professors and lawyers (usually 12-30 for a Restatement) with subject expertise appointed to advise the Reporter
• Members Consultative Group: Groups of ALI members (usually 50-75 for a Restatement) interested in the topic of a Restatement who wish to offer input
• ALI Membership: a approximately 3000 ALI members who discuss and ocasionally vote on Restatement language at annual meetings; membership gives input only near the end stages of the drafting process

Drafting Process

The following process typically takes between 9 and 21 years:

• A Reporter is appointed by the Council
• The Reporter divides the project into parts that go through the following process separately:
• The Reporter writes a preliminary draft
• The Preliminary draft is sent to the Advisers and the Members Consultative Group
• The Advisers and Members Consultative Group recommend revisions
• The Reporter, at his/her discretion, makes the revisions
• The draft goes back and forth between the Advisers and the Reporter and a series of revised preliminary drafts are made
• The Reporter and Advisers send a council draft to the Council of the Institute
• The Council suggests revisions
• The Reporter is somewhat obliged to make the suggested revisions
• The draft goes back and forth between the Advisors and the Council and a series of council drafts are made
• The Council presents a tentative draft to the ALI membership
• The draft goes back and forth between the Council and the Membership and a series of tentative drafts are made
• Issues surrounding the draft settle and a proposed final draft is usually created
• The proposed final draft (or last tentative draft) is submitted to the ALI Membership at the annual meeting
• The Membership and the Council approve the proposed final draft
• The Restatement is adopted and promulgated and the official text of the Restatement is published

Other ALI-authored works, such as Uniform Commercial Code articles, are created in a similar process. If you want assistance locating materials relating to non-Restatement ALI projects, please ask a research librarian .

TRACING THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF RESTATEMENT SECTIONS

Legal researchers sometimes need to trace the historical development of a Restatement section, the impetus for its inclusion, which section of a prior Restatement it derived from, or how it came to be worded a certain way.

For many sections, Reporter's notes explain the development of a section, often explaining earlier versions and citations to cases that were used as the basis for the rule. Reporters notes can be found in the Appendix volumes of individual Restatements.

To trace how the text changed during the drafting process, you can compare various drafts: the tentative drafts, council drafts, preliminary drafts and proposed final drafts. Each draft has its own record in the library catalog. Use the Title Keywords search in  Hollis Classic --for example, search  restatement torts --to locate them. Drafts are also available in the microform set Archive Publications described below.

Some Restatement volumes contain conversion tables. These tables indicate where sections of drafts or sections from earlier series were included in the final, adopted version of a Restatement.

Although some Restatements are designated 2d or 3d, there are not always antecedents. For instance, the Restatement of the Law Governing Lawyers is a Restatement of the Law Third, but there has never been a first or second Restatement of the Law Governing Lawyers.

• The Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Law Institute Available online from 1997 Available on Westlaw from 2000 For additional and older material, see: Reading Room KF 294 .A5 A3 Microform Room Drawer 812 An excellent research tool for those tracing the development of a Restatement section. The ALI has published the Proceedings annually since 1923, except for 1945-1955. The Proceedings contain reports to ALI members, Reporter presentations, transcripts of discussions of drafts, the text of proposed amendments, and include an index of sections discussed. For the years 1945-1955, the Proceedings are only available in the Archive Publications set described below.
• The ALI Reporter Available online from 1999 Reading Room KF 200 .A455 The ALI's quarterly newsletter contains the latest information about ALI projects, meetings, and members, including reports on actions taken on drafts and the full text of chapters approved for discussion at the annual meeting with revisions explained.
• Archive Publications Microfilm Room KF 294.A5 A43, Drawers 963-965 A microfiche set containing the text of of Restatements, all drafts, and ALI Proceedings from annual meetings for the years that were not officially published, 1945-55. It also contains drafts of four Restatement projects that were terminated before completion. The set is arranged by Restatement, by section, and chronologically. Coverage starts with the founding of the ALI in 1923. All drafts produced for ALI projects are added to this set a few years after the project is completed or terminated. There is a print guide to this microfiche collection in the Microform Room at KF 294 .A5 A43.
• American Law Institute Archives Finally, there is a well-indexed, comprehensive collection of the American Law Institute Archives at the Biddle Law Library of the University of Pennsylvania. The archive contains drafts, comments, and correspondence related to ALI projects.

Determining the Current Status of Restatement Drafts

The American Law Institute is continually working on Restatements and other projects. Researchers are often interested in determining whether a Restatement has become final, or what stage the drafting process has reached. The following tools can help answer those questions, as well as provide a history of the development of ALI projects.

• ALI Catalog of Publications The catalog contains information about draft content and authorship. It mentions which portions of Restatements are superceded or in development.
• Annual Report of the ALI Director The Annual Report summarizes work contemplated, underway, and completed during the year on various Restatements. Available online from 1999. Reports 1988-1998, are available in the Reading Room KF 294 .A5 A14 .
• Proceedings of ALI Annual Meetings The Proceedings contain proposed amendments, an index of sections discussed, and records of discussions. Meetings take place in May and the Proceedings are usually available by March or April of the following year. Available online from 1997 Available on Westlaw from 2000 For additional and older material, see: Reading Room KF 294 .A5 A3 Microform Room Drawer 812

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Primary vs. Secondary Sources for Scientific Research

• Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources
• Science Resources
• Analyzing Sources

Primary and Secondary Sources

Primary Sources in the Sciences

What's a primary source in the sciences?

Primary sources in the sciences (and many social sciences), report original research, ideas, or scientific discoveries for the first time. Primary sources in the sciences may also be referred to as primary research, primary articles, or research studies. Examples include research studies, scientific experiments, papers and proceedings from scientific conferences or meetings, dissertations and theses, and technical reports.

The following are some characteristics of scientific primary sources:

• They report results/findings/data from experiments or research studies.
• They do not include meta-analyses, systematic reviews, or literature reviews.  These are secondary sources.
• They are frequently found in peer-reviewed or scholarly journals.
• They should explain the research methodology used and frequently include methods, results, and discussion sections.
• They are factual, not interpretive.

How do I find primary sources in the sciences?

A good place to start your search is in a subject-specific database. Many of these databases include options to narrow your search by source type. Not sure which database to use? Check out our  Database A-Z List  (use the dropdown menu to filter by subject).

Information adapted from Binghamton University Library

When searching for biomedical literature, you will find two types of articles: primary and secondary. Primary sources include articles that describe original research. Secondary sources analyze and interpret primary research.

Primary Literature 

Original source of research or new discoveries.	Original research article published in a peer reviewed journal
Results of scientific activities and raw data	Dissertations  Secondary Literature Summarizes and synthesizes primary literature Literature review or review articles Might be broader or less current than primary literature Books Do not provide new data or research Chapters Adapted from Regis University Library Next: Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources >> Last Updated: Sep 12, 2024 12:18 PM URL: https://clt.library.jwu.edu/c.php?g=1335128 JWU-Charlotte Library: 801 West Trade Street, Charlotte, North Carolina 28202 980 598-1611 Location and Directions Off-Campus Access Staff Directory Chat with a Librarian Interlibrary Loan (ILL) System Status Study Rooms Research Appointment Culinary Museum Evidence Based Practice 1. Ask: PICO(T) Question 2. Align: Levels of Evidence 3a. Acquire: Resource Types 3b. Acquire: Searching 4. Appraise Primary vs. Secondary Sources Qualitative and Quantitative Sources Managing References Sources are considered primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on the originality of the information presented and their proximity or how close they are to the source of information. This distinction can differ between subjects and disciplines. In the sciences, research findings may be communicated informally between researchers through email, presented at conferences (primary source), and then, possibly, published as a journal article or technical report (primary source). Once published, the information may be commented on by other researchers (secondary sources), and/or professionally indexed in a database (secondary sources). Later the information may be summarized into an encyclopedic or reference book format (tertiary sources). Source Primary Sources A primary source in science is a document or record that reports on a study, experiment, trial or research project. Primary sources are usually written by the person(s) who did the research, conducted the study, or ran the experiment, and include hypothesis, methodology, and results. Primary Sources include: Pilot/prospective studies Cohort studies Survey research Case studies Lab notebooks Clinical trials and randomized clinical trials/RCTs Dissertations Secondary Sources Secondary sources list, summarize, compare, and evaluate primary information and studies so as to draw conclusions on or present current state of knowledge in a discipline or subject. Sources may include a bibliography which may direct you back to the primary research reported in the article. Secondary Sources include: reviews, systematic reviews, meta-analysis newsletters and professional news sources practice guidelines & standards clinical care notes patient education Information government & legal Information entries in nursing or medical encyclopedias Source More on Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis Systematic reviews – Systematic reviews are best for answering single questions (eg, the effectiveness of tight glucose control on microvascular complications of diabetes). They are more scientifically structured than traditional reviews, being explicit about how the authors attempted to find all relevant articles, judge the scientific quality of each study, and weigh evidence from multiple studies with conflicting results. These reviews pay particular attention to including all strong research, whether or not it has been published, to avoid publication bias (positive studies are preferentially published). Source Meta-analysis -- Meta-analysis, which is commonly included in systematic reviews, is a statistical method that quantitatively combines the results from different studies. It can be used to provide an overall estimate of the net benefit or harm of an intervention, even when these effects may not have been apparent in the individual studies [ 9 ]. Meta-analysis can also provide an overall quantitative estimate of other parameters such as diagnostic accuracy, incidence, or prevalence. Source << Previous: 4. Appraise Next: Qualitative and Quantitative Sources >> Last Updated: Nov 9, 2023 12:14 PM URL: https://libraryguides.nau.edu/evidencebasedpractice University Library Types of Sources and Where to Find Them: Secondary Sources This is the second video in a two-part tutorial on primary and secondary sources. Historians and other scholars classify sources as primary or secondary. Whereas primary sources are considered the raw material of the historical record, and are usually created around the same time as the events they purport to document, secondary sources are further removed from these historical events or circumstances. Typically, secondary sources offer an interpretation of the past based on analysis and synthesis of primary sources. Examples of secondary sources include: surveys of broad historical periods, works that focus on specific events or topics, literary and cultural criticism, and works on theory and methodology. Secondary sources can be found in books, journals, or Internet resources. When we talk about secondary sources, most of the time we are referring to the published scholarship on a subject, rather than supplementary material like bibliographies, encyclopedias, handbooks, and so forth. These supplementary materials are sometimes referred to as tertiary sources. A secondary source is analytical and interpretive. It may offer a new reading of historical events and primary sources that have been analyzed before, or present an analysis of events and sources that were previously unknown or not written about. A secondary source might also synthesize the work of other historians in order to formulate a totally new interpretation. You will use secondary sources to identify the main currents of thought on your topic, and to answer questions, like: Which historians have taken up this topic? What were their main arguments? How have historians’ understanding of the topic changed over time? To identify secondary literature, you can do subject searches in the library catalog to find books, or subject searches in article databases to find articles. The most important databases for finding peer-reviewed articles by historians are: America: History and Life, which covers the history of North America and Historical Abstracts, which covers the rest of the world since 1450. You can also consult standard published bibliographies, like the American Historical Association’s Guide to Historical Literature, or specialized bibliographies, like this bibliography of medieval warfare. You may find more lengthy treatments of the topic published as book chapters, journal articles, or even as individual monographs. You can read about the topic in a subject encyclopedia and look at the bibliography at the end of the entry. You can find a major work of scholarship on the topic, and follow up on the sources used by the author. Most of the time you will find the secondary literature you need by using the library catalog, the appropriate article databases, subject encyclopedias, bibliographies, and by consulting with your instructor. Remember to keep track of all the sources you’ve used. At some point, you’ll want to list them in a bibliography of your own. Secondary Sources in Research Other Academics' Observations on Primary Sources fizkes / Getty Images An Introduction to Punctuation Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester B.A., English, State University of New York In contrast to primary sources in  research  activities, secondary sources consist of information that has been gathered and often interpreted by other researchers and recorded in books, articles, and other publications.  In her "Handbook of Research Methods , "  Natalie L. Sproull points out that secondary sources "are not necessarily worse than primary sources and can be quite valuable. A secondary source may include more information about more aspects of the event than did a primary source ." Most often though, secondary sources act as a way to keep up with or discuss progress in a field of study, wherein a writer may use another's observations on a topic to summarize his or her own viewpoints on the matter to progress the discourse further. The Difference Between Primary and Secondary Data In the hierarchy of the relevance of the evidence to an argument, primary sources like original documents and first-hand accounts of events provide the strongest support to any given claim. By contrast, secondary sources provide a type of back-up to their primary counterparts. To help explain this difference, Ruth Finnegan distinguishes primary sources as forming the "basic and original material for providing the researcher's raw evidence" in her 2006 article "Using Documents." Secondary sources, while still highly useful, are written by someone else after an event or about a document and can therefore only serve the purpose of furthering an argument if the source has credibility in the field. Some, therefore, argue that secondary data is neither better nor worse than primary sources—it's simply different. Scot Ober discusses this concept in "Fundamentals of Contemporary Business Communication," saying "the source of the data is not as important as its quality and its relevance for your particular purpose." Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data Secondary sources also provide advantages unique from primary sources, but Ober posits that the major ones are economic saying that "using secondary data is less costly and time-consuming than collecting primary data." Still, secondary sources can also provide hindsight to historical events, providing the context and missing pieces of narratives by relating each event to others happening nearby at the same time. In terms of evaluations of documents and texts, secondary sources offer unique perspectives like historians have on the impact of bills such as the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights in the U.S. Constitution. However, Ober warns researchers that secondary sources also come with their fair share of disadvantages including quality and scarcity of sufficient secondary data, going so far as to say "never use any data before you have evaluated its appropriateness for the intended purpose." A researcher must, therefore, vet the qualifications of the secondary source as it relates to the topic—for instance, a plumber writing an article about grammar may not be the most credible resource, whereas an English teacher would be more qualified to comment on the subject. Documentation in Reports and Research Papers Primary and Secondary Sources in History What Is a Primary Source? What Is a Research Paper? The Definition and Examples of Folk Linguistics An Introduction to Academic Writing Definition and Examples of Interjections in English How to Write a Critical Essay What Is a Literature Review? Source Domain in Conceptual Metaphor Expressive Discourse in Composition What Is Plagiarism? classical rhetoric What Is an Annotated Bibliography? How to Use Block Quotations in Writing Definition and Examples of Analysis in Composition Ginn search Primary and secondary sources, primary sources. Primary sources are the raw materials of history — original documents and objects which were created at the time under study. Examples of primary sources are letters, manuscripts, diaries, journals, newspapers, speeches, interviews, memoirs, documents from government agencies, photographs, audio and video recordings, research data, objects, and artifacts. A primary source provides direct or firsthand evidence about an event, object, or person. Primary sources also include historical and legal documents, eyewitness accounts, results of experiments, statistical data, pieces of creative writing, and fieldwork. Internet communications via email, blogs, listservs, and newsgroups are also primary sources.  Examples of primary source database collections are Congressional Publications Digital National Security Archive FBIS (Foreign Broadcast Information Service) World Newsreels Online Secondary Sources Secondary sources are works that interpret or analyze historical events or phenomena. They are accounts or interpretations of events created by someone without firsthand experience. One step removed from the subject, secondary sources are the result of someone else's contemplation and synthesis of primary sources. Examples of secondary sources are scholarly or popular books and journal articles, histories, criticisms, reviews, commentaries, encyclopedias, and textbooks. Secondary sources describe, discuss, interpret, comment upon, analyze, evaluate, summarize, and process primary sources. Organizing Research for Arts and Humanities Papers and Theses General Guide Information Developing a Topic What are Primary and Secondary Sources What are Scholarly and Non-Scholarly Sources Writing an Abstract Writing Academic Book Reviews Writing A Literature Review Using Images and other Media Distinguishing Primary from Secondary Sources Most research papers in the arts and humanities require use of primary and secondary sources for critical analysis and support of ideas. But what is a primary source and what is a secondary source? Figuring this out can be complicated! What is a Primary Source? The Reference and User Services Association (RUSA) of the American Library Association offers a historical definition of  a primary source, to wit: "primary sources are original records created at the time historical events occurred or well after events in the form of memoirs and oral histories." [RUSA, "Using Primary Sources on the Web," accessed January 2014 through http://www.ala.org/rusa/sections/history/resources/pubs/usingprimarysources] Another useful definition is provided by Sylvan Barnet, who describes primary sources as the subject of study, and secondary sources as materials written about the primary sources. [Sylvan Barnet, A Short Guide to Writing About Art (New York: Pearson/Longman, 2005), 240.] Some Examples of Primary Sources Ordinarily, a primary source is thought of as being unique, such as, for example: an object, a letter, a photograph, an art work, a city plan. an archival collection, such as someone's papers or office records. The reality is, however, that not all primary sources are unique. Some have been republished or reproduced multiple times. Here are some examples: a newspaper article that first reported on an event. a creative or theoretical work, such as, for example, the architect Le Corbusier's book Urbanisme , first published during his lifetime in the 1920s, and translated into English fairly soon thereafter as The City of Tomorrow and Its Planning. Editions of this work, both in the original French and in translation, may constitute a primary source, depending on the context in which they are used. The context of your research is very important in defining what are primary and secondary materials. If you are writing a critical course paper on Le Corbusier's ideas for city planning, any translation of his book The City of Tomorrow and Its Planning may be used as a primary source. If, however, you are writing about the development of Le Corbusier's planning thoughts and on the dissemination of his ideas, you will likely have to use a particular edition for your research. Given this more specific historic context of your research, early editions in French and other languages may constitute your primary sources, whereas the later editions may not be as relevant to your study, or might be used as secondary resources. What is a Secondary Source? Regardless of what "primary" source is appropriate for the context of your research project, your and others' critical analysis of it are secondary sources. ********************* I highly recommend the USC Libraries Primary Source Guide  for information on collections of primary resources and recommendations for evaluating primary sources. Remember to keep track of your sources, regardless of the stage of your research. The USC Libraries have an excellent guide to  citation styles  and to  citation management software .  << Previous: Developing a Topic Next: What are Scholarly and Non-Scholarly Sources >> Last Updated: Jan 19, 2023 3:12 PM URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/ah_writing Peer-Reviewed Literature: Peer-Reviewed Research: Primary vs. Secondary Peer-Reviewed Research: Primary vs. Secondary Types of Peer Review Identifying Peer-Reviewed Research Peer Reviewed Research Published literature can be either peer-reviewed or non-peer-reviewed. Official research reports are almost always peer reviewed while a journal's other content is usually not. In the health sciences, official research can be primary, secondary, or even tertiary. It can be an original experiment or investigation (primary), an analysis or evaluation of primary research (secondary), or findings that compile secondary research (tertiary). If you are doing research yourself, then primary or secondary sources can reveal more in-depth information. Primary Research Primary research is information presented in its original form without interpretation by other researchers. While it may acknowledge previous studies or sources, it always presents original thinking, reports on discoveries, or new information about a topic. Health sciences research that is primary includes both experimental trials and observational studies where subjects may be tested for outcomes or investigated to gain relevant insight.  Randomized Controlled Trials are the most prominent experimental design because randomized subjects offer the most compelling evidence for the effectiveness of an intervention. See the below graphic and below powerpoint for further information on primary research studies. Research Design Secondary Research Secondary research is an account of original events or facts. It is secondary to and retrospective of the actual findings from an experiment or trial. These studies may be appraised summaries, reviews, or interpretations of primary sources and often exclude the original researcher(s). In the health sciences, meta-analysis and systematic reviews are the most frequent types of secondary research.  A meta-analysis is a quantitative method of combining the results of primary research. In analyzing the relevant data and statistical findings from experimental trials or observational studies, it can more accurately calculate effective resolutions regarding certain health topics. A systematic review is a summary of research that addresses a focused clinical question in a systematic, reproducible manner. In order to provide the single best estimate of effect in clinical decision making, primary research studies are pooled together and then filtered through an inclusion/exclusion process. The relevant data and findings are then compiled and synthesized to arrive at a more accurate conclusion about a specific health topic. Only peer-reviewed publications are used and analyzed in a methodology which may or may not include a meta-analysis. << Previous: Home Next: Types of Peer Review >> Last Updated: Sep 29, 2023 10:05 AM URL: https://ttuhsc.libguides.com/PeerReview How To Do Secondary Research or a Literature Review What is secondary research, why is secondary research important. Guide License Literature Review What If I'm Unfamiliar With My Topic? Evaluating Sources Develop Your Search Strategy Document Your Search and Organize Your Results Systematic Literature Review Tips Ethics & Integrity More Information Paul V. Galvin Library email: [email protected] Chat with us: Make a research appointment:, search our faq:. Secondary research, also known as a literature review , preliminary research , historical research , background research , desk research , or library research , is research that analyzes or describes prior research. Rather than generating and analyzing new data, secondary research analyzes existing research results to establish the boundaries of knowledge on a topic, to identify trends or new practices, to test mathematical models or train machine learning systems, or to verify facts and figures. Secondary research is also used to justify the need for primary research as well as to justify and support other activities. For example, secondary research may be used to support a proposal to modernize a manufacturing plant, to justify the use of newly a developed treatment for cancer, to strengthen a business proposal, or to validate points made in a speech. Because secondary research is used for so many purposes in so many settings, all professionals will be required to perform it at some point in their careers. For managers and entrepreneurs, regardless of the industry or profession, secondary research is a regular part of worklife, although parts of the research, such as finding the supporting documents, are often delegated to juniors in the organization. For all these reasons, it is essential to learn how to conduct secondary research, even if you are unlikely to ever conduct primary research. Secondary research is also essential if your main goal is primary research. Research funding is obtained only by using secondary research to show the need for the primary research you want to conduct. In fact, primary research depends on secondary research to prove that it is indeed new and original research and not just a rehash or replication of somebody else’s work. Next: Literature Review >> Last Updated: Jul 24, 2024 4:34 PM URL: https://guides.library.iit.edu/litreview Library Search View Library Account The Claremont Colleges Library Research Guides SC HIST 155: Women, Gender and US Colonialism / A. Aruck / FA 2024 This Guide, Your Assignment, and Secondary (Mostly Scholarly) Sources Primary Resources Special Collections Search Strategies Citing Your Sources Your Assignment and this Guide Welcome to the research course guide for  HIST 155: Women, Gender, and U.S. Colonialism   This guide is a good place to start for researching the primary and secondary sources you will need to locate for your annotated bibliography and for your final research paper.  Use the tabs on the side to go to the different categories on the side.  Remember that this guide is a place to begin your research.  The main subject guides, listed below under "other research guides, have a much fuller offering of both secondary and primary source databases   Just a few words about research that you can either heed or ignore:  seen holistically, these different types of sources make up the scholarly conversation.  Your research paper, responding to your topic and the sources you locate, is also part of the scholarly conversation.  What you find in your sources may alter the trajectory of your res earch.  In sum:  research is an art, not a science, and as such it is not linear.  Please remember that I and other librarians are here to help you.  Don't hesitate to contact me or make an appointment. Secondary Scholarly Resources America History and Life United States History Historical Abstracts This link opens in a new window Why search here? The main index for scholarship in early modern to present day World History, excluding United States and Canadian history. Content type: Abstracts of scholarly articles, magazine articles, dissertations and theses, books Coverage dates: 1953-present more... less... Language: English, French, German, Spanish, etc. Academic Search Premier Our main interdisciplinary index includes both scholarly and non-scholarly articles. Good for all subjects and topics, including Medieval and Renaissance History. more... less... May have more current research than International Medieval Bibliography and Iter, although does not go back as far. Library Search! Provides access to resources owned by the Claremont Colleges Library, and to millions of resources from other libraries worldwide. In addition to physical materials housed in the library, Library Search also provides access to online sources (eBooks, articles, dissertations, and streaming video and audio). Other Research Guides Latin American History by Adam Rosenkranz Last Updated Sep 10, 2024 131 views this year Asian History by Adam Rosenkranz Last Updated Aug 30, 2024 59 views this year African History by Adam Rosenkranz Last Updated Aug 30, 2024 112 views this year Middle Eastern / North African History by Adam Rosenkranz Last Updated Sep 9, 2024 67 views this year Gender/ Feminist/ Sexuality/ Women's/ Queer Studies by Nazia Islam Last Updated Aug 19, 2024 152 views this year Arts and Humanities Librarian Next: Primary Resources >> : Sep 23, 2024 9:00 AM URL: https://libguides.libraries.claremont.edu/WomenGenderUSColonialismAAruckFA2024 Guidelines for the new Green Foundation box The scope of Green Chemistry is well described by, but not limited to, the definition proposed by Anastas and Warner in 1998, 1 which incorporates a set of principles aimed at reducing or eliminating the use or generation of hazardous substances in the design, manufacture, and application of chemical products ( Fig. 1 ). This journal leads the continuously evolving interdisciplinary science of green chemistry, publishing research that promotes the safe management and use of chemicals with reduced environmental impact, advances a circular economy through efficient recycling technologies and resource efficiency, and works to develop a technology base that is inherently non-toxic to living organisms and the environment. Summary of the 12 principles of Green Chemistry. Scientific papers are often presented in such a way that they appeal primarily to experts within a given field. At Green Chemistry , we believe that impactful science should resonate not only with experts, but also with the broader scientific community and society at large – to embrace talented researchers from a community of diverse backgrounds and disciplines. To make the author and reader experience more accessible, we now introduce the Green Foundation box as a requirement for all submitted articles (starting December 2 nd , 2024). This feature is intended to provide a concise way for authors to contextualize their work in terms of the green principles applied, the wider sustainability/societal impact, and provide metrics to quantify the advance of their work for editors, reviewers, and readers. Here's how it works. To make fulfilling our requirement as straightforward as possible we ask that authors answer three specific questions based on the article type, keeping responses within 140 words. 1. How does your work advance the field of green chemistry? 2. Please can you describe your specific green chemistry achievement, either quantitatively or qualitatively? 3. How could your work be made greener and be elevated by further research? 1. What advances in green chemistry have been discussed? 2. What makes the area of study of significant wider interest? 3. What will the future of this field hold, and how will the insight in your review help shape green chemistry science? These answers should describe how their research advances the field of green chemistry and how research of these green aspects can be assessed qualitatively or quantitatively through a range of methods, models, indicators and consequent metrics. 2 If a manuscript is accepted, the Green Foundation box will be positioned in the published article between the Abstract and the Introduction. A wider and more complete list of examples can be found in our Green Chemistry blog post “ Green Foundation box ” alongside other news and updates. Please find here an example of what a Primary research Green Foundation box will look like based on the recent Full Paper by Ferlin et al. ( https://doi.org/10.1039/D4GC00930D ). 1. The work introduces the use of a solid electrolyte into organic electrosynthesis, and it proves that with this approach it is possible to significantly reduce the waste associated with the use of stoichiometric classic homogeneous electrolytes generally containing halides 2. Calculation of the green metrics (E-factors, RME, MRP) for the newly defined procedure and several literature examples allows quantification of the specific achievement. The E-factor has been reduced by ca. 82–99%. The mass of the electrolyte generally constitutes 25–68% of the entire kernel and, in our case, we could obtain a very low value of 0.12%. 3. Future research will be dedicated to expanding the utilization of solid electrolytes in different electro-assisted processes using safe recoverable reaction media. Please find here an example of what a Secondary research Green Foundation box will look like based on the recent Perspective by Nabera et al. ( https://doi.org/10.1039/D3GC01053H ). 1. Recent increases in energy prices in Europe have created a scenario where greener production technologies for the production of ammonia and methanol have become relatively cost effective. We show that renewable options for both ammonia and methanol had the potential to outperform their fossil counterparts for six months as of December 2021. 2. If the European chemical industry can establish cost-competitive production routes of green ammonia and methanol then they have the opportunity to lead the transition and global movement towards environmentally responsible practices, while simultaneously reaping significant economic benefits in the long run. 3. Global concerns regarding the environment and the price of sustainability means that identifying cost-competitive low-carbon technologies are of special interest. With a coordinated effort from academia, industry, and policymakers, Europe can lead the grand transition towards more sustainable practices in the chemical industry. Further examples can be found by following this link to our blog post . Green Chemistry: Theory and Practice , ed. P. T. Anastas and J. C. Warner, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1998  Search PubMed . An RSC cross-journal collection of selected examples that showcase the benefits and trade-offs of green chemistry by providing assessment methods, models, and metrics. [ https://pubs.rsc.org/en/journals/articlecollectionlanding?sercode=gc&themeid=ca916995-9c76-4711-828a-b240ef12f235 ]. 465 IMAGES How Do You Analyse Sources in Academic Writing?: A Useful Guide for 15 Secondary Research Examples (2024) Library Research Paper: Example & Writing Guide [2024] How to Write a Research Paper: Full Guide with Examples Give Example Of Primary And Secondary Sources Learn How To Find Sources For A Research Paper VIDEO Secondary Research The Power of Secondary Data in Client Reports Selecting Primary and Secondary Sources and Writing a Case Brief How to Integrate Sources in Your Paper Source of Secondary Data in Research I Case Study Method I Data Processing Research Methodology How to differentiate primary, secondary and tertiary sources of information COMMENTS Primary vs. Secondary Sources Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. Primary research gives you direct access to the subject of your research. Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Examples include journal articles, reviews ... What is Secondary Research? Secondary research can be qualitative or quantitative in nature. It often uses data gathered from published peer-reviewed papers, meta-analyses, or government or private sector databases and datasets. Tip: Primary vs. secondary sources It can be easy to get confused about the difference between primary and secondary sources in your Secondary Sources Reviewing secondary source material can be of value in improving your overall research paper because secondary sources facilitate the communication of what is known about a topic. This literature also helps you understand the level of uncertainty about what is currently known and what additional information is needed from further research. It ... What Are Secondary Sources? Secondary sources interpret, analyze, and discuss the evidence provided by primary sources. Examples of secondary sources include scholarly books and articles. Secondary sources are generally a second-hand account or observation at least one step removed from the event, i.e., accounts written after the fact by people not present when an event ... Primary vs. secondary sources: how to distinguish them Likewise, a secondary source can tell you about current trends in research and analysis, while providing you with a broad overview or summary of an extended period of time, or the works of an artist. Examples of primary and secondary sources. We have put together a list of examples of primary and secondary sources by fields of study. Primary Vs Secondary Source A primary source is direct or first-hand evidence about an event, person, object, or work of art, often created during the event. A secondary source interprets, analyses, or summarises information from primary sources, offering a second-hand account or perspective on the original data. Primary vs. Secondary Secondary Sources are one step removed from primary sources, though they often quote or otherwise use primary sources. They can cover the same topic, but add a layer of interpretation and analysis. Secondary sources can include: Most books about a topic. Analysis or interpretation of data. Secondary Research: Definition, Methods, Sources, Examples, and More Secondary research involves the analysis and synthesis of existing data and information that has been previously collected and published by others. This method contrasts with , which entails the direct collection of original data from sources like surveys, interviews, and ethnographic studies. The essence of secondary research lies in its ... Research Guides: English: Primary vs. Secondary Primary sources are original records created at the time historical events occurred or well after events in the form of memoirs or oral histories.. Examples of primary sources include diaries, speeches, letters, memos, manuscripts, and other papers; memoirs and autobiographies; records of information collected by government agencies and organizations; published materials (books, magazine and ... Secondary Sources Secondary sources describe, discuss, interpret, comment upon, analyze, evaluate, summarize, and process primary sources. The important thing to keep in mind when trying to decide if a source is primary or secondary is whether or not the author did the thing they are reporting on. If they did, it is a primary source; if they did not, it is a ... Primary vs. Secondary Sources Also considered as secondary sources are any ancillary materials that were re-used or repurposed from other research. Interestingly, primary source research papers almost always include a review of prior research as part of the introduction or as a "literature review" section. The primary source material only includes those parts that talk ... What is a Secondary Source? For a historical research project, secondary sources are generally scholarly books and articles. A secondary source interprets and analyzes primary sources. These sources are one or more steps removed from the event. Secondary sources may contain pictures, quotes or graphics of primary sources. Types of Sources Explained How each source is categorized depends on the topic of research and how you use the source. Example: Primary vs. secondary. When you are studying the effect of technology on cognition, a magazine article discussing recent research into the influence of blue light on sleep patterns is a secondary source, because it interprets the results of ... Research Guides: Secondary Sources: ALRs, Encyclopedias, Law Reviews Secondary sources are a great place to begin your research. Although the primary sources of law--case law, statutes, and regulations--establish the law on a given topic, it is often difficult to quickly locate answers in them. ... Working papers are an additional source of secondary analysis. They are frequently draft or pre-publication ... Primary vs. Secondary Sources for Scientific Research Examples include research studies, scientific experiments, papers and proceedings from scientific conferences or meetings, dissertations and theses, and technical reports. The following are some characteristics of scientific primary sources: They report results/findings/data from experiments or research studies. Primary vs. Secondary Sources Sources are considered primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on the originality of the information presented and their proximity or how close they are to the source of information.This distinction can differ between subjects and disciplines. In the sciences, research findings may be communicated informally between researchers through email, presented at conferences (primary source), and ... Types of Sources and Where to Find Them: Secondary Sources Secondary sources can be found in books, journals, or Internet resources. When we talk about secondary sources, most of the time we are referring to the published scholarship on a subject, rather than supplementary material like bibliographies, encyclopedias, handbooks, and so forth. These supplementary materials are sometimes referred to as ... Secondary Research for Your Dissertation: A Research Guide Secondary research plays a crucial role in dissertation writing, providing a foundation for your primary research. By leveraging existing data, you can gain valuable insights, identify research gaps, and enhance the credibility of your study. Unlike primary research, which involves collecting original data directly through experiments, surveys ... What Are Secondary Sources in Research? Secondary Sources in Research. In contrast to primary sources in research activities, secondary sources consist of information that has been gathered and often interpreted by other researchers and recorded in books, articles, and other publications. In her "Handbook of Research Methods, " Natalie L. Sproull points out that secondary sources ... Primary and Secondary Sources A primary source provides direct or firsthand evidence about an event, object, or person. Primary sources also include historical and legal documents, eyewitness accounts, results of experiments, statistical data, pieces of creative writing, and fieldwork. Internet communications via email, blogs, listservs, and newsgroups are also primary sources. LibGuides: * Research Basics *: Primary vs. Secondary Sources College-level research can be difficult, even for students who have previously done research. This guide is a great starting point for learning about how to successfully conduct literature-based research, such as secondary research or a literature review. This page is not currently available due to visibility settings. What are Primary and Secondary Sources Most research papers in the arts and humanities require use of primary and secondary sources for critical analysis and support of ideas. But what is a primary source and what is a secondary source? Figuring this out can be complicated! Peer-Reviewed Research: Primary vs. Secondary Secondary research is an account of original events or facts. It is secondary to and retrospective of the actual findings from an experiment or trial. These studies may be appraised summaries, reviews, or interpretations of primary sources and often exclude the original researcher(s). In the health sciences, meta-analysis and systematic reviews ... How To Do Secondary Research or a Literature Review Secondary research, also known as a literature review, preliminary research, historical research, background research, desk research, or library research, is research that analyzes or describes prior research.Rather than generating and analyzing new data, secondary research analyzes existing research results to establish the boundaries of knowledge on a topic, to identify trends or new ... This Guide, Your Assignment, and Secondary (Mostly Scholarly) Sources Welcome to the research course guide for HIST 155: Women, Gender, and U.S. Colonialism This guide is a good place to start for researching the primary and secondary sources you will need to locate for your annotated bibliography and for your final research paper.Use the tabs on the side to go to the different categories on the side. Remember that this guide is a place to begin your research. Guidelines for the new Green Foundation box These answers should describe how their research advances the field of green chemistry and how research of these green aspects can be assessed qualitatively or quantitatively through a range of methods, models, indicators and consequent metrics. 2 If a manuscript is accepted, the Green Foundation box will be positioned in the published article between the Abstract and the Introduction. essay homework paper phd project resume review speech study thesis